Training Session on Energy

Equipment
Thermal Systems/Fuels

Fuels & Combustion

Presentation from the
“Energy Efficiency Guide for Industry in Asia”
www.energyefficiencyasia.org

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© UNEP 2006
 Training Agenda: Fuels &
Combustion
Thermal Systems/Fuels

Introduction
Type of fuels
Performance evaluation
Energy efficiency opportunities

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 Introduction

The Formation of Fuels

Thermal Systems/Fuels

• Solar energy is converted to chemical

energy through photo-synthesis in
plants
• Energy produced by burning wood or
fossil fuels
• Fossil fuels: coal, oil and natural gas

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© UNEP 2006
 Training Agenda: Fuels &
Combustion
Thermal Systems/Fuels

Introduction
Type of fuels
Performance evaluation
Energy efficiency opportunities

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© UNEP 2006
 Type of Fuels

Liquid Fuels
Thermal Systems/Fuels

 Usage
• Used extensively in industrial applications

 Examples
• Furnace oil
• Light diesel oil
• Petrol
• Kerosine
• Ethanol
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• LSHS (low sulphur heavy stock)
© UNEP 2006
 Type of Fuels

Liquid Fuels
Thermal Systems/Fuels

 Density
• Ratio of the fuel’s mass to its volume at 15 oC,
• kg/m3
• Useful for determining fuel quantity and quality

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 Type of Fuels

Liquid Fuels
Thermal Systems/Fuels

 Specific gravity
• Ratio of weight of oil volume to weight of same
water volume at a given temperature
• Specific gravity of water is 1
• Hydrometer used to measure

Table 1. Specific gravity of various fuel oils (adapted

from Thermax India Ltd.)

Fuel oil LDO Furnace oil LSHS (Low Sulphur

type (Light Diesel Oil) Heavy Stock)

Specific 0.85-0.87 0.89-0.95 0.88-0.98

Gravity
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© UNEP 2006
 Type of Fuels

Liquid Fuels
Thermal Systems/Fuels

 Viscosity
• Measure of fuel’s internal resistance to flow
• Most important characteristic for storage and use
• Decreases as temperature increases

 Flash point
• Lowest temperature at which a fuel can be
heated so that the vapour gives off flashes when an
open flame is passes over it
• Flash point of furnace oil: 66oC 8
© UNEP 2006
 Type of Fuels

Liquid Fuels
Thermal Systems/Fuels

 Pour point
• Lowest temperature at which fuel will flow
• Indication of temperature at which fuel can be
pumped

 Specific heat
• kCal needed to raise temperature of 1 kg oil by
1oC (kcal/kgoC)
• Indicates how much steam/electricity it takes to
heat oil to a desired temperature
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 Type of Fuels

Liquid Fuels
Thermal Systems/Fuels

 Calorific value
• Heat or energy produced
• Gross calorific value (GCV): vapour is fully
condensed
• Net calorific value (NCV): water is not fully
condensed

Fuel Oil Gross Calorific Value (kCal/kg)

Kerosene 11,100
Diesel Oil 10,800
L.D.O 10,700
Furnace Oil 10,500
LSHS 10,600 10
© UNEP 2006
 Type of Fuels

Liquid Fuels
Thermal Systems/Fuels

 Sulphur content
• Depends on source of crude oil and less on the
refining process
• Furnace oil: 2-4 % sulphur
• Sulphuric acid causes corrosion

 Ash content
• Inorganic material in fuel
• Typically 0.03 - 0.07%
• Corrosion of burner tips and damage to
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materials /equipments at high temperatures
© UNEP 2006
 Type of Fuels

Liquid Fuels
Thermal Systems/Fuels

 Carbon residue
• Tendency of oil to deposit a carbonaceous solid
residue on a hot surface
• Residual oil: >1% carbon residue

 Water content
• Normally low in furnace oil supplied (<1% at
refinery)
• Free or emulsified form
• Can damage furnace surface and impact flame 12
© UNEP 2006
 Type of Fuels

Liquid Fuels
Thermal Systems/Fuels

 Storage of fuels
• Store in cylindrical tanks above or below
the ground
• Recommended storage: >10 days of
normal consumption
• Cleaning at regular intervals

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© UNEP 2006
 Type of Fuels

Liquid Fuels
Thermal Systems/Fuels

Typical specifications of fuel oils

(adapted from Thermax India Ltd.)
Properties Fuel Oils
Furnace Oil L.S.H.S L.D.O
Density (Approx. 0.89-0.95 0.88-0.98 0.85-0.87
g/cc at 150C)
Flash Point (0C) 66 93 66
Pour Point (0C) 20 72 18
G.C.V. (Kcal/kg) 10500 10600 10700
Sediment, % Wt. 0.25 0.25 0.1
Max.
Sulphur Total, % Wt. < 4.0 < 0.5 < 1.8
Max.
Water Content, % 1.0 1.0 0.25
Vol. Max.
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Ash % Wt. Max. 0.1 0.1 0.02
© UNEP 2006
 Type of Fuels

Solid Fuels
Thermal Systems/Fuels

 Coal classification
• Anthracite: hard and geologically the
oldest
• Bituminous
• Lignite: soft coal and the youngest
• Further classification: semi- anthracite,
semi-bituminous, and sub-bituminous

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 Type of Fuels

Solid Fuels
Thermal Systems/Fuels

 Physical properties
• Heating or calorific value (GCV)
• Moisture content
• Volatile matter
• Ash

 Chemical properties
• Chemical constituents: carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen, sulphur 16
© UNEP 2006
 Type of Fuels

Solid Fuels (Physical properties)

Thermal Systems/Fuels

 Heating or calorific value

• The typical GVCs for various coals are:

Parameter Lignite Indian Indonesian South

(Dry Coal Coal African
Basis) Coal

GCV 4,500 4,000 5,500 6,000

(kCal/kg)

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© UNEP 2006
 Type of Fuels

Solid Fuels (Physical properties)

Thermal Systems/Fuels

 Moisture content
• % of moisture in fuel (0.5 – 10%)
• Reduces heating value of fuel
• Weight loss from heated and then cooled powdered
raw coal

 Volatile matter
• Methane, hydrocarbons, hydrogen, CO, other
• Typically 25-35%
• Easy ignition with high volatile matter
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• Weight loss from heated then cooled crushed coal
© UNEP 2006
 Type of Fuels

Solid Fuels (Physical properties)

Thermal Systems/Fuels

 Ash
• Impurity that will not burn (5-40%)
• Important for design of furnace
• Ash = residue after combustion

 Fixed carbon
• Fixed carbon = 100 – (moisture + volatile matter +
ash)
• Carbon + hydrogen, oxygen, sulphur, nitrogen
residues 19
• Heat generator during combustion © UNEP 2006
 Type of Fuels

Solid Fuels (Physical properties)

Thermal Systems/Fuels

 Proximate analysis of coal

• Determines only fixed carbon, volatile matter,
moisture and ash
• Useful to find out heating value (GCV)
• Simple analysis equipment

 Ultimate analysis of coal

• Determines all coal component elements: carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen, sulphur, other
• Useful for furnace design (e.g flame temperature,
flue duct design)
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• Laboratory analysis © UNEP 2006
 Type of Fuels

Solid Fuels (Physical properties)

Thermal Systems/Fuels

 Proximate analysis
Typical proximate analysis of various coals
(%) Indian Indonesian South African
Coal Coal Coal
Moisture 5.98 9.43 8.5

Ash 38.63 13.99 17

Volatile matter 20.70 29.79 23.28

Fixed Carbon 34.69 46.79 51.22

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© UNEP 2006
 Type of Fuels

Solid Fuels (Chemical Properties)

Thermal Systems/Fuels

 Ultimate analysis
Typical ultimate analysis of coal (%)
Parameter Indian Coal, % Indonesian Coal, %
Moisture 5.98 9.43
Mineral Matter (1.1 x Ash) 38.63 13.99
Carbon 41.11 58.96
Hydrogen 2.76 4.16
Nitrogen 1.22 1.02
Sulphur 0.41 0.56
Oxygen 9.89 11.88

GCV (kCal/kg) 4000 5500 22

© UNEP 2006
 Type of Fuels

Solid Fuels (Chemical Properties)

Thermal Systems/Fuels

 Storage, Handling & Preparation

• Storage to minimize carpet loss and loss due
to spontaneous combustion
• Reduce carpet loss: a) a hard surface b)
standard concrete/brick storage bays
• Coal preparation before use is important for
good combustion

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© UNEP 2006
 Type of Fuels

Gaseous Fuels
Thermal Systems/Fuels

 Advantages of gaseous fuels

• Least amount of handling
• Simplest burners systems
• Burner systems require least
maintenance
• Environmental benefits: lowest GHG
and other emissions
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© UNEP 2006
 Type of Fuels

Gaseous Fuels
Thermal Systems/Fuels

 Classification of gaseous fuels

(A) Fuels naturally found in nature
-Natural gas
-Methane from coal mines
(B) Fuel gases made from solid fuel
-Gases derived from coal
-Gases derived from waste and biomass
-From other industrial processes
(C) Gases made from petroleum
-Liquefied Petroleum gas (LPG)
-Refinery gases
-Gases from oil gasification
(D) Gases from some fermentation 25
© UNEP 2006
 Type of Fuels

Gaseous Fuels
Thermal Systems/Fuels

 Calorific value
• Fuel should be compared based on the net
calorific value (NCV), especially natural gas

Typical physical and chemical properties of various gaseous fuels

Fuel Gas Relative Higher Heating Air/Fuel ratio Flame Flame
Density Value kCal/Nm3 m3/m3 Temp oC speed m/s
Natural 0.6 9350 10 1954 0.290
Gas

Propane 1.52 22200 25 1967 0.460

Butane 1.96 28500 32 1973 0.870

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© UNEP 2006
 Type of Fuels

Gaseous Fuels
Thermal Systems/Fuels

 Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG)

• Propane, butane and unsaturates, lighter C2
and heavier C5 fractions
• Hydrocarbons are gaseous at atmospheric
pressure but can be condensed to liquid state
• LPG vapour is denser than air: leaking gases
can flow long distances from the source

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© UNEP 2006
 Type of Fuels

Gaseous Fuels
Thermal Systems/Fuels

 Natural gas
• Methane: 95%
• Remaing 5%: ethane, propane, butane,
pentane, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, other gases
• High calorific value fuel
• Does not require storage facilities
• No sulphur
• Mixes readily with air without producing smoke or
soot
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© UNEP 2006
 Type of Fuels

Comparing Fuels
Thermal Systems/Fuels

Fuel Oil Coal Natural Gas

Carbon 84 41.11 74
Hydrogen 12 2.76 25

Sulphur 3 0.41 -
Oxygen 1 9.89 Trace
Nitrogen Trace 1.22 0.75
Ash Trace 38.63 -
Water Trace 5.98 -
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© UNEP 2006
 Training Agenda: Fuels &
Combustion
Thermal Systems/Fuels

Introduction
Type of fuels
Performance evaluation
Energy efficiency opportunities

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© UNEP 2006
 Performance Evaluation

Principles of Combustion
Thermal Systems/Fuels

• Combustion: rapid oxidation of a fuel

• Complete combustion: total oxidation of
fuel (adequate supply of oxygen needed)
• Air: 20.9% oxygen, 79% nitrogen and other
• Nitrogen: (a) reduces the combustion
efficiency (b) forms NOx at high
temperatures
• Carbon forms (a) CO2 (b) CO resulting in
less heat production
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© UNEP 2006
 Performance Evaluation

Principles of Combustion
Thermal Systems/Fuels

• Control the 3 Ts to optimize combustion:

1T) Temperature
2T) Turbulence
3T) Time

• Water vapor is a by-product of burning fuel

that contains hydrogen and this robs heat
from the flue gases
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 Performance Evaluation

Principle of Combustion
Thermal Systems/Fuels

Oxygen is the key to combustion

Bureau of Energy Efficiency, India, 2004

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 Performance Evaluation

Stochiometric calculation of air

Thermal Systems/Fuels

required
 Stochiometric air needed for combustion of
furnace oil
 Theoretical CO2 content in the flue gases
 Actual CO2 content and % excess air
 Constituents of flue gas with excess air
 Theoretical CO2 and O2 in dry flue gas by
volume
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 Performance Evaluation

Concept of Excess Air

Thermal Systems/Fuels

• Measure CO2 in flue gases to estimate

excess air level and stack losses
Excess air (%)

Carbon dioxide (%) 35

Source: Bureau of Energy Efficiency, India, 2004 © UNEP 2006
 Performance Evaluation

Concept of Excess Air

Thermal Systems/Fuels

• Measure O2 in flue gases to estimate

excess air level and stack losses
Excess air (%)

Residual oxygen (%)

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Bureau of Energy Efficiency, India, 2004 © UNEP 2006
 Performance Evaluation

Draft System
Thermal Systems/Fuels

 To exhaust combustion products to

atmosphere
 Natural draft:
• Caused by weight difference between the hot gases
inside the chimney and outside air
• No fans or blowers are used

 Mechanical draft:
• Artificially produced by fans
• Three types a) balanced draft, b) induced draft and 37
c) forced draft © UNEP 2006
 Training Agenda: Fuels &
Combustion
Thermal Systems/Fuels

Introduction
Type of fuels
Performance evaluation
Energy efficiency opportunities

38
© UNEP 2006
 Energy Efficiency Opportunities

Four main areas

Thermal Systems/Fuels

 Preheating of combustion oil

 Temperature control of combustion
oil
 Preparation of solid fuels
 Combustion controls

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 Energy Efficiency Opportunities

Preheating of Combustion Oil

Thermal Systems/Fuels

 Purpose: to make furnace oil easier

to pump
 Two methods:
• Preheating the entire tank
• Preheating through an outflow heater as
the oil flows out

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 Energy Efficiency Opportunities

Temperature Control of
Thermal Systems/Fuels

Combustion Oil
 To prevent overheating
• With reduced or stopped oil flow
• Especially electric heaters

 Using thermostats

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 Energy Efficiency Opportunities

Preparation of Solid Fuels

Thermal Systems/Fuels

Sizing and screening of coal

• Important for efficient combustion
• Size reduction through crushing and
pulverizing (< 4 - 6 mm)
• Screen to separate fines and small particles
• Magnetic separator for iron pieces in coal

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 Energy Efficiency Opportunities

Preparation of Solid Fuels

Thermal Systems/Fuels

Conditioning of coal:
• Coal fines cause combustion problems
• Segregation can be reduced by
conditioning coal with water
• Decrease % unburnt carbon
• Decrease excess air level required

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 Energy Efficiency Opportunities

Preparation of Solid Fuels

Thermal Systems/Fuels

Blending of coal
• Used with excessive coal fines
• Blending of lumped coal with coal
containing fines
• Limits fines in coal being fired to <25%
• Ensures more uniform coal supply

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 Energy Efficiency Opportunities

Combustion Controls
Thermal Systems/Fuels

• Assist burner to achieve optimum boiler

efficiency through the regulation of fuel
supply, air supply, and removal of
combustion gases
• Three controls:
• On/Off control: burner is firing at full rate or it is
turned off
• High/Low/Off control: burners with two firing rates
• Modulating control: matches steam pressure
demand by altering the firing rate
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© UNEP 2006
 Training Session on Energy
Equipment


Thermal Systems/Fuels

Fuels & Combustion

THANK YOU
FOR YOUR ATTENTION

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© UNEP GERIAP
 Disclaimer and References

• This PowerPoint training session was prepared as part of

Thermal Systems/Fuels

the project “Greenhouse Gas Emission Reduction from

Industry in Asia and the Pacific” (GERIAP). While
reasonable efforts have been made to ensure that the
contents of this publication are factually correct and
properly referenced, UNEP does not accept responsibility
for the accuracy or completeness of the contents, and shall
not be liable for any loss or damage that may be occasioned
directly or indirectly through the use of, or reliance on, the
contents of this publication. © UNEP, 2006.
• The GERIAP project was funded by the Swedish
International Development Cooperation Agency (Sida)
• Full references are included in the textbook chapter that is
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available on www.energyefficiencyasia.org
© UNEP 2006