HYDROLOGY & WATER RESOURCES

HYDROLOGY AND
WATER RESOURCES
HYDROLOGY & WATER RESOURCES
Introduction
• Need of Hydrologic Studies
• Uncertainty of Precipitation and its seasonal
occurrence, seasonal flow of rivers has resulted in the
need of Hydrologic studies.
• Flood forecasting is a very important phenomenon
relating to this as a result of which many losses and
flood damages can be overcome.
• Also increase in the rate of growth of population has
resulted in the need for Hydrologic studies because the
usage and wastage of water has increased.
HYDROLOGY & WATER RESOURCES
Introduction

• Importance of Hydrology in Civil Engineering:

• Design and Operation of Water Resource Engineering
Projects
• Irrigation
• Flood Control
• Water Supply Schemes
• River Drainage Works
• Navigational Purposes
• Sediment and Erosion Studies
• Water resource management
HYDROLOGY & WATER RESOURCES
Introduction

• Weir:
Weir is a structure built at a suitable location across a
river for diverting the river water into the canals for the
purpose of Irrigation by raising the water level.
• Barrage:
If the weir is provided with gates to further raise the
water level, then such a structure is called a Barrage.
HYDROLOGY & WATER RESOURCES
Introduction

• Dam:
• Dam is a structure constructed across a river both for
the diversion as well as the storage of water.
• Normally dam is provided with a reservoir for the
storage of water during period of abundant
availability of water. This water may be used during
periods of low water availability.
HYDROLOGY & WATER RESOURCES
Introduction

Major aspects of Hydrology

• Data collection
• Analysis of data
• Prediction
HYDROLOGY & WATER RESOURCES Major aspects of Hydrology

• Data Collection:
For the construction of a Dam for example, data is generally
collected many years early in order to make its design a safe
one. The data collected may be Rainfall data, snowfall and
snow melt data, discharge data of river, groundwater data.

• Analysis of Data:
The data collected is then analyzed for future assessment and
predictions. Inconsistency is removed. Missing data is
estimated if there is any. Mean and average values are
calculated. It is checked that whether the structure being
constructed will be suitable for future requirements or not.
HYDROLOGY & WATER RESOURCES Major aspects of Hydrology

• Prediction:
After the data has been analyzed, it is used for future
predictions regarding the suitability of the structure
keeping in mind the following:
• Statistical approach
• Physical approach
• Deterministic approach
HYDROLOGY & WATER RESOURCES
Introduction
Sciences involved in Hydrology:
• Geology
• Hydraulics
• Meteorology
• Physics
• Chemistry
• Forestry
• Transportation
• Agriculture
• Glaciology
• Oceanography
HYDROLOGY & WATER RESOURCES
Introduction

WATER RESOURCES OF PAKISTAN

• The main water resources of Pakistan are the following.
• Rainfall
• Glacier
• Rivers and Dams
• Surface water
• Groundwater
HYDROLOGY & WATER RESOURCES
Water Resources of Pakistan

• Rainfall:
Rainfall in Pakistan is markedly variable in magnitude,
time of occurrence and its aerial distribution. However,
almost two-thirds of the rainfall is concentrated in the
three summer months of July - September. There are two
major sources of rainfall in Pakistan: the Monsoons and
the Western Disturbances.
HYDROLOGY & WATER RESOURCES
Water Resources of Pakistan
HYDROLOGY & WATER RESOURCES
Water Resources of Pakistan

• Glaciers:
• The catchment area of the Indus Basin contains some of
the largest glaciers in the world, outside the Polar
Regions.
• The glacial area of the upper Indus catchment is about
2,250 km2 and accounts for most of the river runoff in
summer.
• The snow and ice melt from the glacial area of the Upper
Indus catchment supply approximately 80% of the total
flow of the Indus River in the summer season. Snowmelt
accounts for more than 50% of the flow in the Jhelum
River.
HYDROLOGY & WATER RESOURCES
Water Resources of Pakistan

• Rivers and Dams

The Indus river system, which is the main source of surface
water in Pakistan, most likely was created some fifty million
years ago, when the Indian Plate (Gondwanaland) first collided
with Eurasia (Angaraland).
The average annual flow-rates of major rivers has been
calculated between 1922-61 to indicate water flows before the
Indus Water Treaty, 1985-1995 to indicate the post-treaty
flows and the 2001-02 flows to present the current situation of
drought conditions. The flows are presented in the next table.
HYDROLOGY & WATER RESOURCES
Water Resources of Pakistan

River Average Annual Average Annual Average Annual

Flow (1922-61) Flow (1985-95) Flow (2001-02)
MAF MAF MAF

Indus 93 62.7 48.0

Jhelum 23 26.6 11.85
Chenab 26 27.5 12.38
Ravi 7 5.0 1.47
Sutlej 14 3.6 0.02
Kabul 26 23.4 18.9
Total 189 148.8 92.62
HYDROLOGY & WATER RESOURCES
Water Resources of Pakistan

• The construction of dams in Pakistan was initiated in

1955, when the country was facing an acute power
shortage.
• Work on the Warsak Dam on Kabul River near Peshawar
was undertaken.
• Later, when India stopped water supplies to the network
of canals in Pakistan, it became imperative to build large
storages and link canals to restore water to the affected
canal system.
• This resulted in the construction of two gigantic dams,
Mangla with a gross storage capacity of 5.88 MAF and
Tarbela with 11.62 MAF.
HYDROLOGY & WATER RESOURCES
Water Resources of Pakistan
• Surface Water:
• Surface water resources in the Indus System is based on river
inflows measured at Rim Stations.
• A rim station, in the context of the Indus Basin Irrigation
System, is defined as a control structure (reservoir, barrage,
etc.) on the river just when the river enters into Pakistani
territory or upstream of the canal-irrigated Indus Plains of
Punjab and Sindh Provinces.
• The rim stations for the Indus System rivers are the Tarbela
Reservoir for the main Indus River, Mangla Reservoir for the
Jhelum River, Marala Barrage for the Chenab River and Balloki
and Sulemanki Barrages for the Ravi and Sutlej Rivers
respectively.
HYDROLOGY & WATER RESOURCES
Water Resources of Pakistan

• The Indus River and its tributaries, on an average, bring

154 MAF of water annually.
• Most of this, about 104.73 MAF, is diverted for irrigation.
39.4 MAF flows to the sea and about 9.9 MAF is
consumed by the system losses which include
evaporation, seepage and spills during floods.
• The waters of the Indus Basin Rivers are diverted through
reservoirs/barrages into canals, classified as Main Canals.
• These main canals then distribute the irrigation water into
their command areas through a network of branch canals.
HYDROLOGY & WATER RESOURCES
Water Resources of Pakistan

• Groundwater:
• Groundwater is also one of the main contributor in the
Water Resource system of Pakistan.
• According to a study, the total groundwater potential
in Pakistan is of the order of 55 MAF.
• In the Punjab, about 79% of the area and in Sindh,
about 28% of the area is underlain by fresh
groundwater.
• This is mostly used as supplemental irrigation water
and pumped through tube wells.
HYDROLOGY & WATER RESOURCES
Water Resources of Pakistan

• Some groundwater is saline. Water from the saline tube

wells is generally put into drains and, where this is not
possible, it is discharged into large canals for use in
irrigation, after diluting with the fresh canal water.
• In the last 25- 30 years, ground water has become a major
supplement to canal supplies, especially in the Upper Indus
Plain, where ground water quality is good.
• There are presently more than 500,000 tube wells in the
Indus Basin Irrigation System (IBIS) and the annual
pumpage in all canal command areas has been estimated to
be over 50 BCM.
HYDROLOGY & WATER RESOURCES
Introduction

Some important terminologies:

• Infiltration:
The land has some capacity to absorb precipitation falling on it.
The process of absorption of the precipitation water by the
ground is known as Infiltration.
• Interception:
When the precipitation continues for a longer duration and at a
rate greater than the infiltration capacity of the soil, part of
precipitation remains temporarily on the vegetation. This process
by which a part of the precipitation water is intercepted by the
plants and vegetation is called as Interception.
HYDROLOGY & WATER RESOURCES
Terminologies

• Depression Storage:
A part of the rain water is stored on the depressions on the
catchment area. This is called Depression Storage.
• Detention Storage:
During precipitation, the rain water continues to be collected
on the surface of the earth till it attains a certain depth and
starts flowing. Before the time it starts flowing, the water
stored on the surface of the earth is called Detention Storage.
• Interflow:
A part of the infiltrated water moves through the upper soil
layers above the ground water level which sooner joins the
stream flow is called Inter flow.
HYDROLOGY & WATER RESOURCES Terminologies

• Base flow:
It is composed of groundwater flow and delayed
subsurface runoff.

• Runoff:
After Detention storage, the water starts flowing over the
ground. This is called Run off. It is measured in volume
units or in Discharge units.
HYDROLOGY & WATER RESOURCES Terminologies

• Total Runoff:
Total runoff considers all amount of water received from
precipitation. It is the sum of water flowing on the
surface of the earth and all the losses through
vaporization, interception and infiltration etc. A part of
the infiltrated water moves in the form of interflow which
sooner joins the stream, the rest portion infiltrates into
the deeper layers of ground and is stored as groundwater.
This groundwater sometimes also joins the stream flow.
The stream flow is then called the Total Runoff.
HYDROLOGY & WATER RESOURCES
Terminologies

• Direct Runoff:
When precipitation occurs over a catchment, the water
which we obtain after all the losses is called Direct
Runoff.
• Meteorology:
Meteorology is the science related to the atmosphere.
• Atmosphere:
Atmosphere is the gaseous envelope around the earth. It
consists of dry air, water vapors and various kinds of salts
and dusts. The total amount of dry air would be over 5600
billion tons water vapors about 146 billion tons.
HYDROLOGY & WATER RESOURCES
Terminologies
• Troposphere:
It is the zone of atmosphere adjacent to earth nearly up to 7 miles
above seal level. In this zone, almost 100% of moisture contents
are present and there is comparatively high temperature gradient
in this region.
• Vapor Pressure:
It is defined as the pressure exerted by the vapors present in the
atmosphere. It is usually denoted by “e” and expressed in milli-
bar. Which is defined as the pressure exerted by a force of 1000
dynes on a square cm. of surface.
The amount of water vapors present in the atmosphere depends
on the temperature of the air, the higher the temperature, the more
vapors the air can hold in the atmosphere.
HYDROLOGY & WATER RESOURCES
Terminologies

• Saturated Vapor pressure:

The pressure exerted by water vapors when the air is fully
saturated with water is known as Saturated vapor pressure.
Denoted by “es”.
• Relative Humidity:
It is the ratio of actual vapor pressure at a certain
temperature and the saturation vapor pressure. It is given as
(e/es) = Relative Humidity
The instruments used for the measurement of relative
humidity are Psychrometer, Hair Hygrometer, Hygrograph,
Thermo Hygrograph.
HYDROLOGY & WATER RESOURCES
Terminologies

• Mean Daily Temperature:

It is the average of maximum and minimum temperatures
during the past 24 hours.
• Normal Daily Temperature:
Average daily mean temperature over the past 30 years is
known as Normal Daily Temperature.
• Mean Monthly Temperature:
It is the average of the mean daily temperature over a
month.
• Mean Annual Temperature:
Mean temperature over the whole year i.e. 12 months.
HYDROLOGY & WATER RESOURCES
Terminologies
• Lapse Rate:
Also known as vertical temperature gradient, it is defined as the change in
temperature per unit distance in the vertical direction from the earth surface.
Its average value is 3.6oF per 1000 vertical feet from the earth surface. The
lapse rates are of three types.
• Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate:
Rate of change of temperature when air is not fully saturated with water
vapors. Average value is 5.4oF per 1000ft.
• Wet (Saturated) Adiabatic Lapse Rate:
Rate of change of temperature when air is fully saturated with water vapors.
Average value is 3.0oF per 1000ft.
HYDROLOGY & WATER RESOURCES
Terminologies

• Pseudo Adiabatic Lapse Rate:

After the condensed particles have dropped down fully
(rainfall), the rate of change of temperature is called
Pseudo Adiabatic Lapse Rate. Average value is 3.0oF per
1000ft.
• Isobars:
Lines joining points of same Atmospheric Pressure.
• Isohyets:
Lines joining points of same Precipitation.