HDF 111 : Physical Chemistry

CHAPTER 2 :
Early Atomic Theory & Structure

© 2010 Cosmopoint
Chapter 2: Early Atomic Theory and Structure
Learning Outcomes
• After completing this chapter, you should
be able to do the following:
– Define Dalton’s atom model
– Define atomic structure of the atom
– Explain atomic number, isotopes, and atomic
mass concept

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Chapter 2: Early Atomic Theory and Structure
Topic Outlines

2.1 Early Thoughts

2.2 Dalton’s Model of the Atom
2.3 Composition of Compounds
2.4 The Nature of Electric Charge
2.5 Discovery of Ions
2.6 Subatomic Parts of the Atom
2.7 The Nuclear Atom
2.8 Isotopes of the Elements
2.9 Atomic Mass

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Chapter 2: Early Atomic Theory and Structure
Introduction
• Pure substances are classified as
elements or compounds
• What makes a substance possess
its unique properties?
• How small a piece of salt will still
taste salty?
• Substances are in their simplest
identifiable form at the atomic, ionic,
or molecular level
• Further division produces a loss of
characteristic properties
• What particles lie within an atom or
ion?
• How are these tiny particles alike?
How do they differ? How far can we
continue to divide them?

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 Chapter 2: Early Atomic Theory and Structure
Early Thoughts
• The earliest models of the atom were
developed by the ancient Greek philosophers
• About 440B.C. Empedocles stated that all
matter was composed of four “elements” –
earth, air, water, and fire
• Democritus (about 470 – 370B.C.) thought
that all forms of matter were composed of tiny
indivisible particles which he called atoms
(Greek word atomos, meaning “indivisible’)
• He held that atoms were in constant motion
and they combined with one another in
various ways (no scientific observations)
• Aristotle (384 – 322 B.C.) opposed the theory
of Democritus; he endorsed and advanced
the Empedoclean theory and dominated the
thinking of scientists and philosophers until
the beginning of the 17th century

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Chapter 2: Early Atomic Theory and Structure
Dalton’s Model of the Atom
• English schoolmaster John
Dalton (1766-1844) revived the
concept of atoms
• He proposed an atomic model
based on facts and
experimental evidence
• He described his theory in a
series of paper published from
1803 – 1810
• The idea was each element
consist of different kind of
atom

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Chapter 2: Early Atomic Theory and Structure
Dalton’s Model of the Atom
• The essence of Dalton’s atomic model:
– Elements are composed of minute,
indivisible particle called atom
– Atoms of the same element are alike in
mass and size
– Atoms of different elements have
different masses and sizes
– Chemical compounds are formed by
the union of 2 or more atoms of
different elements
– Atom combine to form compounds in
simple numerical ratios, such as one to
one , one to two, two to three, and so
on
– Atoms of two elements may combine
in different ratios to form more than
one compound

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Chapter 2: Early Atomic Theory and Structure
Dalton’s Model of the Atom
• Later investigation
however have shown:
– Atoms are composed of
subatomic particles
– Not all the atoms of a
specific element have the
same mass
– Atoms, under special
circumstances, can be
decomposed

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Chapter 2: Early Atomic Theory and Structure
Composition of Compounds

Water Hydrogen peroxide

11.2% H 5.9%
88.8% O 94.1%
Atomic composition 2H + 1O 2H + 2O

• Law of definite composition: a compound

always contains two or more elements
chemically combined in a definite proportion by
mass

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Chapter 2: Early Atomic Theory and Structure
Composition of Compounds
• Law of multiple proportions: states atoms of two
or more elements may combine in different ratios to
produce more than one compound
• The law of definite composition and law of
multiple proportions state that
(1) the composition of a particular substance will always
be the same no matter what its origin or how it is
formed,
(2) the composition of different compounds formed from
the same elements will always be unique

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Chapter 2: Early Atomic Theory and Structure
Combined Elements Giving More Than One Compound

Compound Formula Percent composition

Copper (I) chloride CuCl 64.2% Cu, 35.8% Cl

Copper (II) chloride CuCl2 47.3% Cu, 52.7% Cl

Methane CH4 74.9% C, 25.1% H

Octane C8H18 85.6% C, 14.4% H

Methyl alcohol CH4O 37.5% C, 12.6% H, 49.9% O

Ethyl alcohol C 2H 6O 52.1% C, 13.1% H, 34.7% O

Glucose C6H12O6 40.0% C, 6.7% H, 53.3% O

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Chapter 2: Early Atomic Theory and Structure
The Nature of Electric Charge
• The properties of electric charge:
– Charge may be positive or negative
– Unlike charges attract, like charges repel
– Charges may be transferred from one object to another, by
contact or induction
– The less the distance between 2 charges, the greater the
force of attraction between unlike charges (or repulsion
between identical charges)
– The force of attraction (F) :
F = kq1q2
r2

q1 and q2 are the charges, r is the distance between the

charges and k is a constant

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Chapter 2: Early Atomic Theory and Structure
Discovery of Ions
• English scientist Michael Faraday (1791-1867) made the
discovery that certain substances when dissolved in water
conduct an electric current
• He also noticed that certain compounds decompose into
their elements when an electric current is passed through
the compound
• Atoms of some elements are attracted to the positive
electrode, while some other elements are attracted to the
negative electrode
• He concluded that these atoms are electrically charged; he
called them ions after the Greek word meaning “wanderer”
• Any moving charge is an electric current
• The electrical charge must travel through a substance
known as a conducting medium

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Chapter 2: Early Atomic Theory and Structure
Subatomic Parts of the Atom
• Diameter of a single
atom ranges from 0.1
to 0.5 nanometer
(1nm = 1 x 10-9m)
• Hydrogen the
smallest atom –
diameter = 0.1nm
• An atom contains
subatomic particles:
electrons, protons,
and neutrons

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Chapter 2: Early Atomic Theory and Structure
Electron
• The electron is a particle
with a negative electrical
charge and a mass of
9.110 x 10-28g
• This mass is 1/1837 the
mass of a hydrogen atom
• Relative charge = -1
• The size of electron has
not been determined
exactly; diameter is
believed to be < 10-12cm

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Chapter 2: Early Atomic Theory and Structure
Proton
• Proton – first
observed by German
physicist Eugen
Goldstein in 1886
• Thompson calculated
its mass; approx.
1837 times of the
mass of electron
• Actual mass = 1.673 x
10-24g; relative charge
of +1

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Chapter 2: Early Atomic Theory and Structure
Thompson Model of The Atom

• Electrons are negatively charged embedded in the

atomic sphere
• Atoms are electrically neutral, the sphere also contains
an equal number of protons, or positive charges
• A neutral atom could become an ion by gaining or losing
electrons
• Positive ions: neutral atom loses electrons
• Atom with net charge +1 has lost one electron
• Atom with a net charge of +3 has lost 3 electrons
• Negative ions gained additional electrons
• A net charge of -1 is produced by the addition of one
electron

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Chapter 2: Early Atomic Theory and Structure
The Third Major Subatomic Particle

• Discovered by James
Chadwick (1891-
1974)
• Neutron – actual
mass 1.675 x 10-24g;
slightly greater than
that of proton

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Chapter 2: Early Atomic Theory and Structure
Class Activity 1

• The mass of a helium atom is 6.65x10-24g.

How many atoms are in a 4.0g sample of
helium?

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Chapter 2: Early Atomic Theory and Structure
Answer

(4.0g) (1 atom He)

(6.65 x 10-24g)

= 6.0 x 1023 atoms He

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Chapter 2: Early Atomic Theory and Structure
Atomic Numbers of the Elements

• Atomic number of an
element is the number of
protons in the nucleus of
an atom of that element
• The atomic number
determines the identity of
an atom
• Hydrogen = atomic
number = 1; contains one
proton in its nucleus
• Uranium = 92; 92 protons

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Chapter 2: Early Atomic Theory and Structure
Isotopes of the Elements

• Isotopes: atoms of an
element having the same
atomic number but
different atomic masses
called isotopes of that
element
• Hydrogen (1), deuterium
(2), tritium (3)
• Mass number: the sum of
the number of protons
and the number of
neutrons in the nucleus

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Chapter 2: Early Atomic Theory and Structure
Isotopes of the Elements

• Isotopes: atoms of an
element having the same
atomic number but
different atomic masses
called isotopes of that
element
• Hydrogen (1), deuterium
(2), tritium (3)
• Mass number: the sum of
the number of protons
and the number of
neutrons in the nucleus

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Chapter 2: Early Atomic Theory and Structure
Atomic Mass
• The mass of a single atom can be
determined precisely with mass
spectrometer
• The mass of a single hydrogen
atom = 1.673 x 10-24g.
• However, it is not
convenient/practical to compare
the actual masses of atoms in
grams => a table of relative
atomic masses using atomic
mass units was devised
• The term atomic weight is
sometimes used instead of
atomic mass

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Chapter 2: Early Atomic Theory and Structure
Atomic Mass Unit
• Carbon isotope having 6 protons & 6
neutrons and designated carbon-12, or 12C,
was chosen as the standard for atomic 6
masses
• This reference isotope was assigned a
value of exactly 12 atomic mass units (amu)
• 1 atomic mass unit is defined as equal to
exactly 1/12 of the mass of a carbon-12
atom
• The actual mass of a carbon-12 atom =
1.9927 x 10-23g => one atomic mass unit =
1.6606 x 10-24g

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Chapter 2: Early Atomic Theory and Structure
Average Atomic Mass

• Hydrogen atoms, with a mass of about 1/12 that of a

carbon atom, have an average atomic mass of 1.00797
amu.
• Magnesium atoms, which are about twice as heavy as
carbon, have an average mass of 24.305 amu.
• Most elements occurs as mixtures of isotopes with
different masses.
• The atomic mass determined for an element represents
the average relative mass of all naturally occurring
isotopes of that element.
• The atomic masses of the individual isotopes are
approximately whole numbers because the relative
masses of the protons and neutrons are approximately
1.0 amu each

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Chapter 2: Early Atomic Theory and Structure
Average Atomic Mass
Isotope Isotopic mass Abundance Average atomic mass
(amu) (%) (amu)
63Cu 62.9298 69.09
29 63.55
65Cu 64.9278 30.91
29

Average atomic mass:

(62.9298 amu)(0.6909) = 43.48 amu
(64.9278 amu)(0.3091) = 20.07 amu
63.55 amu

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Chapter 2: Early Atomic Theory and Structure
Example 1

• How many protons,

neutrons, and electrons are
found in an atom of 146C ?

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Chapter 2: Early Atomic Theory and Structure
Answer

• The element is carbon.

• Atomic number = 6
• Number of protons or
electrons are equal to the
atomic number = 6
• The number of neutrons =
14 – 6 = 8

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Chapter 2: Early Atomic Theory and Structure
Class Activity 1

• How many protons, neutrons, and

electrons are in each of these
isotopes
• 16O8
• 80Br35
• 235U92
• 64Cu29

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Chapter 2: Early Atomic Theory and Structure
Class Activity 2

• What is the atomic number and the

mass number of the elements that
contains:
• a) 9 electrons
• b) 24 protons and 28 neutrons
• c) 197X79

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Chapter 2: Early Atomic Theory and Structure
Class Activity 3

• Chlorine is found in nature as two

isotopes, 37Cl17 (24.47%) and 35Cl17
(75.53%). The atomic masses are
36.96590 and 34.96885 amu
respectively. Determine the average
atomic mass of chlorine.

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Chapter 2: Early Atomic Theory and Structure

THANK YOU !

© 2010 Cosmopoint Slide 33 of 18