Lecture 14

Taken in part from Chapters 13-15

Semiconductor Manufacturing Technology 14 - 1
 Objectives
• Basic concepts for photolithography, including
process overview, critical dimension generations,
light spectrum, resolution and process latitude.
• Difference between negative and positive
lithography.
• Eight basic steps to photolithography.
• Wafer surface preparation for photolithography.
• Photoresist physical properties.
• Applications of conventional i-line photoresist.
• Deep UV resists
• Photoresist application techniques
• Soft bake processing

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 Wafer Fabrication Process Flow
Wafer fabrication (front-end)

Wafer start

Thin Films Polish

Unpatterned
wafer

Diffusion Photo Etch

Completed wafer

Test/Sort
Implant

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 Photolithography Concepts

• Patterning process
– Photomask
– Reticle
• Critical dimension generations
• Light spectrum and wavelengths
• Resolution
• Overlay accuracy
• Process latitude

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 Three Basic Exposure Methods
1:1 Exposure 1:1 Exposure ~5:1 Exposure

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• Contact printing capable of high resolution
but has unacceptable defect densities. May be
used in Development but not
manufacturing.
• Proximity printing cannot easily print
features below a few mm in line width. Used in
nano-technolgy.
• Projection printing provides high
resolution and low defect densities and
dominates today. Typical projection systems
use reduction optics (2X - 5X), step and repeat
or step and scan. They print » 50 wafers/hour
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 Steps in Lithography Process

Lithography has three parts:

(1) Light source, (2) Wafer exposure (3) Resist
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14 - 8
Photomask and Reticle for Microlithography
1:1 Mask 4:1 Reticle

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Three Dimensional Pattern in Photoresist
Space
Linewidth
Photoresist

Thickness

Substrate

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Section of the Electromagnetic Spectrum
Visible

Micro-
Gamma rays X-rays UV Infrared waves Radio waves

22 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4
f (Hz) 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10

-14 -12 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2

(m)λ 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 10 2 10 4

157 193 248 365 405 436

λ (nm)
VUV DUV DUV i h g
Common UV wavelengths used in optical lithography.

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 Light Sources

Decreasing feature sizes requires shorter λ.

• Hg vapor lamps: Hg plasma inside glass lamp
– Produces multiple wavelengths
– Limited in intensity
– “g” line: λ = 436 nm (used to mid 1980s)
– “I” line: λ = 365 nm (early 1990s, >0.3 μm)
• Deep UV by excimer lasers
– Kr + NF3 + (energy) → KrF + (photon emission)
• KrF: λ = 248 nm (used for 0.25 μm)
• ArF: λ = 193 nm (used for 0.12 μm)

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 Important Wavelengths for
Photolithography Exposure

UV Wavelength Wavelength
UV Emission Source
(nm) Name
436 g-line Mercury arc lamp
405 h-line Mercury arc lamp
365 i-line Mercury arc lamp
Mercury arc lamp or
248 Deep UV (DUV) Krypton Fluoride (KrF) excimer laser
193 Deep UV (DUV) Argon Fluoride (ArF) excimer laser
157 Vacuum UV (VUV) Fluorine (F2) excimer laser

Table 13.1
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Importance of Mask Overlay Accuracy
Top view of CMOS inverter

The masking layers determine

the accuracy by which
subsequent processes can be
performed.

The photoresist mask pattern

prepares individual layers for
proper placement, orientation,
and size of structures to be
etched or implanted.
PMOSFET NMOSFET

Small sizes and low tolerances

do not provide much room for
error.
Cross section of CMOS inverter

Figure 13.4
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 Photolithography Processes

• Negative Resist
– Wafer image is opposite of mask image
– Exposed resist hardens and is insoluble
– Developer removes unexposed resist

• Positive Resist
– Mask image is same as wafer image
– Exposed resist softens and is soluble
– Developer removes exposed resist

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 Negative Lithography

Areas exposed to light become

crosslinked and resist the
Ultraviolet light developer chemical.
Chrome island on
glass mask Island
Exposed area of
photoresist
Window
Photoresist
Shadow on
photoresist

Photoresist
Photoresist
Oxide
Oxide Oxide
Oxide
Silicon
Silicon substrate
substrate Silicon
Silicon substrate
substrate

Resulting pattern after

the resist is developed.

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 Positive Lithography

Ultraviolet light

Areas exposed to
light are dissolved.
Chrome island Shadow on
on glass mask photoresist Island
Window

photoresist
Photoresist

Exposed area
of photoresist
photoresist
Photoresist
Photoresist
oxide
Oxide
Oxide oxide
Oxide
Oxide
silicon
Silicon
Silicon substrate
substrate
substrate silicon substrate
Silicon
Silicon substrate
substrate

Resulting pattern after

the resist is developed.

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 Relationship Between Mask and Resist
Desired photoresist structure to be Island of photoresist
printed on wafer

Substrate

Chrome Quartz

Window Island

Mask pattern required when using Mask pattern required when using
negative photoresist (opposite of positive photoresist (same as
intended structure) intended structure)

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 Clear Field and Dark Field Masks

Clear Field Mask Dark Field Mask

Simulation of metal interconnect lines Simulation of contact holes

(positive resist lithography) (positive resist lithography)

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Eight Steps of Photolithography

Step Chapter
1. Vapor prime 13
2. Spin coat 13
3. Soft bake 13
4. Alignment and exposure 14
5. Post-exposure bake (PEB) 15
6. Develop 15
7. Hard bake 15
8. Develop inspect 15
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 Eight Steps of Photolithography
UV Light

λ
HMDS
Resist Mask

1) Vapor prime 2) Spin coat 3) Soft bake 4) Alignment

and Exposure

5) Post-exposure 6) Develop 7) Hard bake 8) Develop inspect

bake

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Photolithography Track System

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 Vapor Prime

The First Step of Photolithography:

• Promotes Good Photoresist-to-Wafer Adhesion
• Primes Wafer with Hexamethyldisilazane,
HMDS
• Followed by Dehydration Bake
• Ensures Wafer Surface is Clean and Dry

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 Spin Coat
Process Summary:
• Wafer is held onto vacuum chuck Photoresist
dispenser
• Dispense ~5ml of photoresist
• Slow spin ~ 500 rpm
• Ramp up to ~ 3000 to 5000 rpm
• Quality measures:
– time
– speed
– thickness
– uniformity
– particles and defects

Vacuum chuck

To vacuum pump
Spindle connected
to spin motor

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 Soft bake
Characteristics of Soft Bake:
• Improves Photoresist-to-Wafer Adhesion
• Promotes Resist Uniformity on Wafer
• Improves Linewidth Control During Etch
• Drives Off Most of Solvent in Photoresist
• Typical Bake Temperatures are 90 to 100°C
– For About 30 Seconds
– On a Hot Plate
– Followed by Cooling Step on Cold Plate

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 Alignment and Exposure
UV light source
Process Summary:
• Transfers the mask image to the resist-
coated wafer
• Activates photo-sensitive components of
photoresist
• Quality measures: Mask
– linewidth resolution
– overlay accuracy
– particles and defects

Resist

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 Post-Exposure Bake
• Required for Deep UV Resists
• Typical Temperatures 100 to 110°C on a hot
plate
• Immediately after Exposure
• Has Become a Virtual Standard for DUV and
Standard Resists

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 Photoresist Development
Process Summary:
• Soluble areas of photoresist Develop
are dissolved by developer dispenser
chemical
• Visible patterns appear on
wafer
- windows
- islands
• Quality measures:
- line resolution
- uniformity Vacuum chuck
- particles and defects
To vacuum pump
Spindle connected to
spin motor

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 Hard Bake
• A Post-Development Thermal Bake
• Evaporate Remaining Solvent
• Improve Resist-to-Wafer Adhesion
• Higher Temperature (120 to 140°C) than Soft
Bake

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 Develop / Inspect
• Inspect to Verify a Quality Pattern
– Identify Quality Problems (Defects)
– Characterize the Performance of the Photolithography
Process
– Prevents Passing Defects to Other Areas
• Etch
• Implant
– Rework Mis-processed or Defective Resist-coated Wafers
• Typically an Automated Operation

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 Vapor Prime
• Wafer Cleaning
• Dehydration Bake
• Wafer Priming
– Priming Techniques
• Puddle Dispense and Spin
• Spray Dispense and Spin
• Vapor Prime and Dehydration Bake

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Effect of Poor Resist Adhesion
Due to Surface Contamination
Resist liftoff

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 HMDS Puddle Dispense and Spin

Spin wafer to remove

Puddle formation excess liquid

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 HMDS Hot Plate Dehydration Bake
and Vapor Prime
Process Summary:
Chamber cover
• Dehydration bake in enclosed
chamber with exhaust
• Hexamethyldisilazane
(HMDS)
• Clean and dry wafer surface
(hydrophobic)
• Temp ~ 200 to 250°C
• Time ~ 60 sec. Wafer

Hot plate

Exhaust

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Purpose of Photoresist in Wafer Fab
• To transfer the mask pattern to the
photoresist on the top layer of the
wafer surface
• To protect the underlying material
during subsequent processing e.g. etch
or ion implantation.

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Progressive Improvements in Photoresist

• Better image definition (resolution).

• Better adhesion to semiconductor wafer
surfaces.
• Better uniformity characteristics.
• Increased process latitude (less sensitivity to
process variations).

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 Spin Coat
• Photoresist
– Types of Photoresist
– Negative Versus Positive Photoresists
• Photoresist Physical Properties
• Conventional I-Line Photoresists
– Negative I-Line Photoresists
– Positive I-Line Photoresists
• Deep UV (DUV) Photoresists
• Photoresist Dispensing Methods

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 Types of Photoresists
• Two Types of Photoresist
– Positive Resist
– Negative Resist
• CD Capability
– Conventional Resist
– Deep UV Resist
• Process Applications
– Non-critical Layers
– Critical Layers

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 Negative Versus Positive Resists
• Negative Resist
– Wafer image is opposite of mask image
– Exposed resist hardens and is insoluble
– Developer removes unexposed resist
• Positive Resist
– Mask image is same as wafer image
– Exposed resist softens and is soluble
– Developer removes exposed resist
• Resolution Issues
• Clear Field Versus Dark Field Masks
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 Photoresist Physical
Characteristics
 Resolution
 Contrast
 Sensitivity
 Viscosity
 Adhesion
 Etch resistance
 Surface tension
 Storage and handling
 Contaminants and particles

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 Resist Contrast
Poor Resist Contrast Good Resist Contrast
• Sloped walls • Sharp walls
• Swelling • No swelling
• Poor contrast • Good contrast

Resist Resist

Film Film

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 Surface Tension
Low surface tension High surface tension
from low molecular from high molecular
forces forces

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Components of Conventional Photoresist

Solvent:
gives resist its flow
characteristics

Resin: mix of polymers used as

binder; gives resist mechanical
and chemical properties

Sensitizers:
photosensitive component of
the resist material

Additives:
chemicals that control specific
aspects of resist material
Figure 13.18
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 Negative Resist Cross-Linking
Areas exposed to light
Unexposed areas become crosslinked and
remain soluble to UV resist the developer
developer chemical. chemical.

Photoresist Oxide

Substrate
Unexposed Exposed

Soluble Crosslinks

Pre-exposure Post-exposure Post-develop

- photoresist - photoresist - photoresist
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PAC as Dissolution Inhibitor
in Positive I-Line Resist
Unexposed resist, containing Resist exposed to
UV light dissolves in the
PACs, remain crosslinked and
insoluble to developer chemical. developer chemical.

Photoresist Oxide

Substrate
Exposed Unexposed

PAC

Soluble
resist
Pre-exposure Post-exposure Post-develop
+ photoresist + photoresist + photoresist
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Good Contrast Characteristics of
Positive I-line Photoresist
Positive Photoresist: Resist

• Sharp walls
• No swelling
Film
• Good contrast

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 DUV Emission Spectrum
KrF laser emission spectrum Emission spectrum of high-intensity mercury lamp

100 120
i-line
80 100 365 nm

80
60 g-line
h-line 436 nm
60 405 nm
40
Relative Intensity (%)

40
20 Relative Intensity (%)
20
0
0

DUV*
248 nm

248 nm
200 300 400 500 600

Wavelength (nm)
* Intensity of mercury lamp is too low at 248 nm to be usable in DUV photolithography applications.
Excimer lasers, such as shown on the left provide more energy for a given DUV wavelength.
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Chemically Amplified (CA) DUV Resist

Unexposed resist remains Resist exposed to light

UV dissolves in the
crosslinked and PAGs are
inactive. developer chemical.

Photoresist Oxide

Substrate

Exposed Unexposed
PAG H+

PAG H+ PAG PAG

PAG

PAG H+
PAG PAG PAG

Acid-catalyzed
reaction (during Unchanged
Pre-exposure PEB) Post-exposure Post-develop
+ CA photoresist + CA photoresist + CA photoresist
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 Exposure Steps for Chemically-
Amplified DUV Resist
1. Resin isphenolic copolymer w ith protecting group that
makes it insoluble in developer.

2. Photoacid generator (PAG) generates acid during exposure.

3. Acid generated in exposed resist
areas serves as catalyst to
remove resin-protecting group during post exposure therma
bake.
4. Exposed areas of resist without protecting group are soluble
in aqueous developer.

Table 13.5
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 Steps of Photoresist Spin Coating

1) Resist dispense 2) Spin-up

3) Spin-off 4) Solvent evaporation

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Automated Wafer Track for Photolithography

Wafer stepper
(Alignment/Exposure system)
Vapor Resist Develop Edge-bead
Load station prime coat and removal Transfer
Rinse station

Wafer Transfer System

Soft Cool Cool Hard

bake plate plate bake

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Photoresist Dispense Nozzle
Z
Y
X Nozzle position can be adjusted
θ in four directions.

Resist flow
Resist dispenser nozzle
Wafer

Stainless
steel bowl

Bottom side EBR Vacuum

chuck
Air flow
Air flow
Exhaust

Spin motor Drain

Vacuum
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 Resist Spin Speed Curve
Spin Speed Curve of IX300
80000

70000

60000
Resist Thickness (Å)

50000

40000 110 cP

30000 70 cP

20000

10000
21 cP
0

1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000

Spin Speed (RPM)
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 Soft Bake on Vacuum Hot Plate
Purpose of Soft Bake: Chamber cover
• Partial evaporation of
photoresist solvents
• Improves adhesion
• Improves uniformity
• Improves etch resistance
• Improves linewidth control Wafer
• Optimizes light absorbance
characteristics of photoresist

Hot plate

Solvent
exhaust

Figure 13.28
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 Solvent Content of Resist Versus
Temperature During Soft Bake
Residual Solvent (% w/w)

DNQ/Novolak
resist

Bake Temperature (°C)

Figure 13.29
14 - 55