Sample Designs

Sampling Terminology
• Sample – subset of larger population
• Population or universe – any complete
group that share some set of characteristics
(e.g., people, sales territories, stores, etc.)
• Population element – individual member
of population
• Census – investigation of all individual
elements that make up a population
 Why Sample?
• It works! Properly selected samples yield
accurate and reliable results.
– If elements are similar smaller sample is needed
• May even be more accurate than census
– Bureau of Census uses samples to check
accuracy of the U. S. Census
• It saves resources
Stages in the Define the target population
Selection
of a Sample Select a sampling frame

Determine if a probability or nonprobability

sampling method will be chosen

Plan procedure
for selecting sampling units

Determine sample size

Select actual sampling units

Conduct fieldwork
 Target Population
• To Whom Do We Want to Talk?
• Relevant population

• The specific, complete group relevant to

the research project.

• Operationally define
– Can be a simple or difficult task
 Sampling Frame
• A list of elements from which the sample
may be drawn
• Sampling frame error – occurs when certain
sample elements are not listed or available
and are not accurately represented in the
sampling frame.
 Sampling Units
• A single element or group of elemente subject to
selection in the sample
• Primary Sampling Units (PSU) :
Unit selected on the first stage.
• Secondary Sampling Units:
Unit selected in the second stage of sampling.
• Tertiary Sampling Units:
Unit selected in the third stage of sampling.
Errors Associated with Sampling
• Sampling frame error
• Random sampling error
• Non-response error
 Random Sampling Error
• The difference between the sample results
and the result of a census conducted using
identical procedures.
 Systematic Errors(Non-sampling)

• Error resulting from some imperfect aspect of the

research design that causes response error or,
• From a mistake in execution of the research;
• Error that comes from such sources as sample
bias, mistakes in recording responses and,
non-responses from persons who were not contacted
or who refused to participate.
• Due to study design or imperfections in execution
 Two Major Categories of
Sampling
• Probability sampling
• nonzero probability for every element
• In which every member of the population has an
equal probability of being selected.
• Non-probability sampling
• In which units of the sample are selected on the
basis of personal judgment or convenience.
• Technically, inappropriate to apply statistical
techniques to project beyond the sample
• Still often used
 Non-probability Sampling
• Convenience
• Judgment
• Quota
• Snowball
 Convenience Sampling

• Also called haphazard or accidental

sampling
• The sampling procedure of obtaining the
people or units that are most conveniently
available
• Advantages: Quickly data collection and
economic.
 Judgment Sampling
• Also called purposive sampling
• An experienced individual selects the
sample based on his or her judgment about
some appropriate characteristics required
of the sample member.
 Snowball Sampling
• A variety of procedures
• Initial respondents are selected by
probability methods if possible
• Additional respondents are obtained from
information provided by the initial
respondents
 Quota Sampling
• Ensures that the various subgroups in a
population are represented on pertinent
sample characteristics
• The researcher is simply given quota and
the actual selection of items /subjects for
sample being left to the researcher’s
judgment. (e.g. occupational category)
 Probability Sampling
• Simple random sample
• Systematic sample
• Stratified sample
• Cluster sample
• Multistage area sample
 Simple Random Sampling
• A sampling procedure that ensures that each
element in the population will have an equal
chance of being included in the sample
 Systematic Sampling
• A simple process
• In such design the selection process starts
by using random numbers to pick up the
unit with which to start.
• Every nth name from the list will be drawn.
• This procedure is useful when sampling
frame is available in the form of a list.
 Stratified Sampling
In a stratified sample the sampling frame is divided
into non-overlapping groups or strata, e.g.
geographical areas, age-groups, genders. A
sample is taken from each stratum, and when this
sample is a simple random sample it is referred to
as stratified random sampling.
• Practical example

• In general the size of the sample in each stratum is taken

in proportion to the size of the stratum. This is called
proportional allocation. Suppose that in a company there
are the following staff:

• * male, full time: 90

• * male, part time: 18
• * female, full time: 9
• * female, part time: 63
• * Total: 180
• and we are asked to take a sample of 40 staff,
stratified according to the above categories.

• The first step is to find the total number of staff

(180) and calculate the percentage in each group.

• * % male, full time = (90 / 180) x 100 = 50

• * % male, part time = ( 18 / 180 ) x100 = 10
• * % female, full time = (9 / 180 ) x 100 = 5
• * % female, part time = (63 / 180) x 100 = 35
• This tells us that of our sample of 40,

• * 50% should be male, full time.

• * 10% should be male, part time.
• * 5% should be female, full time.
• * 35% should be female, part time.

• * 50% of 40 is 20.
• * 10% of 40 is 4.
• * 5% of 40 is 2.
• * 35% of 40 is 14.
 Cluster Sampling
• The purpose of cluster sampling is to sample
economically in which the primary sampling
unit is not the individual element in the
population but large cluster of elements.
• the total population is divided into groups
(or clusters) and a sample of the groups is
selected. Then the required information is
collected from the elements within each
selected group.
• The main difference between cluster
sampling and stratified sampling is that in
cluster sampling the cluster is treated as the
sampling unit so analysis is done on a
population of clusters (at least in the first
stage). In stratified sampling, the analysis is
done on elements within strata. In stratified
sampling, a random sample is drawn from
each of the strata, whereas in cluster
sampling only the selected clusters are
studied.
 What is the
Appropriate Sample Design?
• Representativeness is Always Important
• Degree of accuracy (nature of research )
• Resources (financial and human resources; value
of information)
• Time
• Advanced knowledge of the population
(availability of list of population elements)
• Geographic aspects
• Need for statistical analysis
 Internet Sampling is Unique
• Internet surveys allow researchers to rapidly
reach a large sample.

• Speed is both an advantage and a

disadvantage.
 Internet Sampling
• Major disadvantage
– lack of computer ownership and Internet access
among certain segments of the population
• Yet Internet samples may be representative of
a target population.
– target population - visitors to a particular Web site.
• Hard to reach subjects may participate