CHAPTER 3

WATER SUPPLY

BFC 3103
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
 CONTENT
 Introduction
 Water quantity requirement
 Intake of raw water
 Screens and grit removal
 Treatment process:
(i) flocculation and coagulation
(ii) softening
(iii) sedimentation
(iv) filtration
(v) disinfection.

BFC 3103
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
INTRODUCTIO
N

BFC 3103
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
Sources of water and issues
related with the sources
SOURCES OF ISSUES
WATER

Surface water High flows, easy to contaminate, relatively high SS,

TURBIDITY and PATHOGENS. In some part, rivers and
streams dry up during the dry season
Groundwater Lower flows but natural filtering capacity that removes
SS, turbidity and pathogens. May be high in TDS,
including Fe, Ca and Mg (hardness). Difficult to clean up
after contaminated. Renewal times can be very long

Seawater Energy intensive to desalinate, so costly compared with

other sources. Desalination can occur by distillation and
reverse osmosis
Reclaimed and reuse Technically feasible. Currently used for irrigating cultural
water crops, landscaping, groundwater recharge and potable
water
TREATMENT
PROCESSES

BFC 3103
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
 Water Treatment
Processes

PHYSICAL BIOLOGICAL CHEMICAL

 Sedimentation
*Not normally used *Coagulation/Floccul
 Filtration
 Membrane: RO, in ation
Ultra-filtration, water treatment *Chemical
Micro-filtration *Biological filter precipitation
 Adsorption: GAC, *Fluidized bed
Powder AC *Chlorination
biological *UV
 Electrodialysis,
Distillation, Aerogel reactor *Ozonation
*Bioden, Autotrophic
sulfur
process, Daisy
wheel in- BFC 3103
situ system ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
Classes of water treatment
Class Description
A No treatment
B Disinfection only
C Standard water treatment
D Special treatment
Source
Some borehole water
Occasional upland water
Some borehole water
Occasional upland water
Lowland rivers & reservoir
Some rural supplies (Fe & Mn)
Color removal
Trace element removal
Industrial water
Electronic industry requirement
Algae removal
Organic removal
Unit processes in different raw
water classes
Treatment Groundwa Standard Special water
categorizati ter water treatment
on supply treatment Class D
Class B Class C
Intak Intak Intak
e e e
Coarse screening Screening
Fine screening Pumping
Pre- Aeratio Pumping Storage
treatment Storage Equalization
n
Equalization Neutralization
Neutralization Aeration
Aeration
Softening
Chemical pre-treatment
Chemical pre-
treatment

Primary Coagulation & Coagulation &

treatment mixing mixing
Flocculation Flocculation
Secondary Sedimentation Sedimentation
treatment Filtrati Filtrati
on on
Disinfection Disinfectio Disinfectio Disinfectio
n n n
Adsorption
Advanced Activated carbon
Membrane processes
treatment Fe & Mn removal
Haloganated compounds
removal
Fluoridation Fluoridation
Fluoridation Fluoridation
 Concentration of major
constituents found in water
General classification Specific constituents Typical concentration
range

Major inorganic Ca2+ , Cl-, F-, Fe2+ , Mn2+ ,NO3-, Na2+ , SO4-2, 1- 1000 mg/L
constituents

Minor inorganic Cadmium, chromium, copper, lead, 0.1-10μg/L

constituents mercury, nickel, zinc, arsenic

Naturally occuring organic Naturally occuring organic matter 0.1-20μg/L

compounds (NOM) that is measured as total
organic carbon (TOC)

Anthropogenic organic Synthetic organic chemicals (SOC) and Below 1 μg/L and ups to
constituents emerging chemicals of concern used in the tens of mg/L
industry, household and agriculture
(eg:benzene)

Living organism Bacteria, algae, viruses millions

BFC 3103
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
Forms of impurities
 Raw water may contain impurities in several
forms including:
 Particulates (size >10-1 mm) – dust
 Suspended ( 10-3 mm <size<10-1 mm) – turbidity
 Colloidal (10-6 mm <size,10-3 mm) – clay minerals
 Dissolved (size < 10-6 mm) – humic/tannic acid,
colour
Objective of the water industry to reduce
these impurities to acceptable levels.
Unit processes that remove a significant
amount of raw-water constituents
Constituent Unit Process (es)
Turbidity and Coagulation/flocculation,
particles sedimentation, granular filtration
Major dissolved Softening, aeration, membranes
inorganics
Minor dissolved Membranes
inorganics
Pathogens Sedimentation, filtration,
disinfection

BFC 3103
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
 Types of particles settling encountered
during drinking water and waste water
treatment
Types of Description Where used in
settling treatment process

Type 1 Particles settle discretely at a Grit removal

constant settling velocity

Type 2 Particles flocculate during settling Coagulant processes and

due to velocity gradient of fluids or most conventional
differences in the settling velocities sedimentation basin
of particles. Their size is
increasing, and they settle faster
as time passes

Type 3 Blanket of particles is formed at Lime-softening

high particle concentrations (above sedimentation and in
1000 mg/L), and a clear interface wastewater sedimentation
is observed between the blanket and sludge thickeners
and clarified water above it
Motivation for the Use of Coagulation
in water Treatment
 Water/wastewater often contain pollutants that are present is
colloidal form·
 In such cases the colloidal suspension may contain:
 organic materials
 metal oxides
 insoluble toxic compounds
 stable emulsions
 insoluble toxic compounds
 material producing turbidity
 This material must be removed prior to discharge
 Because of the nature of the colloidal suspension these
particles will not sediment or be separated with conventional
physical methods (such as filtration or settling) unless they are
agglomerated through coagulation
(i) coagulation/flocculation
Objective: to turn the small particles of color,
turbidity and bacteria into large flocs, either
as percipitates or suspended particles.
Technically: coagulation applies to the
removal of colloidal particles. However,the
term has been applied more loosely to
removal of dissolved ions, which is actually
percipitation. THUS…
Coagulation as a method to alter the colloids so that
they wil be able to approach and adhere to each
other to form larger floc particles
continues..
WHY COLLOIDS ARE SUSPENDED IN
SOLUTION AND CAN’T BE REMOVED BY
SEDIMENTATION AND FILTRATION???
It’s because
The particles in colloid (0.1-20 µ m)range are too fine to settle
in a reasonable time period and too SMALL to be
trapped in the pores of the filter

BFC 3103
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
 continues…
 Most colloids are stable becoz they posses a
negative charge that repels other colloidal
particles before they collide with one another.
 The colloids are continually involved in
Na will+

Brownian movement reduce

the charge
 How to destabilize the particles???

NEUTRALIZE THE CHARGE OF COLLOIDAL The higher

the [Na+ ], the
PARTICLES BY ADDITION OF AN ION
LOWER the charge,
OPPOSITE TO IT therefore the LOWER
the repelling forces
BFC 3103
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
continues…
PURPOSE OF COAGULATION
(i) To alter the colloids so that they can adhere to
each other
(ii) During coagulation, a positive ion is added to
the water to REDUCE the surface charge to
the point where the colloids are not repelled
from each other
(iii) A coagulant is the substance (chemical) that is
added to the water to accomplish coagulation

BFC 3103
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
continues…
COAGULANT:
- is the substance (chemical) that is added to the water
to destabilize particles and accomplish coagulation
PROPERTIES OF COAGULANT
 Trivalent cations (Al3+ , Fe3+ )
 Nontoxic: obvious for the production of safe water
 Insoluble in the neutral pH. The coagulant that is
added must percipitate out of solution so that high
concentration of the ion are not left in the water.
Such precipitation greatly influenced the colloidal
removal process

BFC 3103
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
 continues…
 Types of coagulant commonly used
Coagulant type examples
Inorganic metallic Aluminium sulfate (Al2(SO4)3• 14H2O, sodium
coagulant aluminate, aluminium chloride, ferric sulfate
and ferric chloride
Prehydrolyzed Made from alum and iron salts and
metal salts hydroxide under controlled condition;
polyaluminium chloride (PAC)
Organic polymers Cationic polymers, anionic polymers, and
nonionic polymers
Natural plant- Opuntia spp. And Moringa Oleifera (used in
based materials many parts of the world esp. developing
country.

BFC 3103
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
 continues…
 Aluminium..
(i) Common coagulant used
(ii) Can be purchased as dry/ liquid alum
(iii) Has an average molecular weight of 594
(iv) When alum is added to a water containing
alkalinity, the reaction will occur
Al2(SO4)3• 14H2O + 6HCO3-↔2Al(OH) 3• 3H2O(s) + 6CO2 +8H2O + 3SO42-

1 mole of alum added uses 6 moles of alkalinity and produces 6 moles of CO2

BFC 3103
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
continues… 2 important
FACTORS in
coagulant
 The above reaction shifts the carbonate addition:
1) pH
equilibrium and decreases the pH 2) dose
 However, as long as sufficient alkalinity is
present and CO2 (g) is allowed to evolve, the
pH is not drastically reduced and is generally
not an operational problem
 When sufficient alkalinity is not present to
neutralize the sulfuric acid production, the pH
may greatly reduced
BFC 3103
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
continues….
 One of the most important to evaluate
coagulation efficiency is to conduct jar test.
 Try these QUESTIONS

1)Two sets o such jar test were conducted on a

raw water containing 15 NTU and an HCO3-
alkalinity concentration of 50 mg/L expressed
as CaCO3. Given the data, find the optimal pH,
coagulant dose and the theoretical amount of
alkalinity that would be consumed at the
optimal dose
BFC 3103
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
Continues..
Jar Test 1
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1 2 3 4 5 6

pH 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5

Alum dose 10 10 10 10 10 10
Settled
Turbidity 10.5 7 6.5 5.7 9 13
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Jar Test 2
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1 2 3 4 5 6

pH 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0

Alum dose 5 7 10 12 15 20
Settled
Turbidity 15 10.5 6 5.5 7 13
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
BFC 3103
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
solution

Results of jar test

Cont..
 The optimal pH was chosen as 6.25
 The optimal alum dose was about 12.5 mg/L

1 mole of alum consumes 6 mole of alkalinity

(HCO3-).

Al2(SO4)3• 14H2O + 6HCO3-↔2Al(OH) 3• 3H2O(s) + 6CO2 +8H2O + 3SO42-

 To calculate moles of alum added per liter, using
the following equation
Cont..
 Mg/L = molarity x molecular wt x 103
= (moles/L) x (g/mole) x 103 mg/g)
12.5 mg/L alum, MW of alum= 594 g/mole
∴ mole/L = 12.5 x 10-3 g/L (alum)/594 g/mole
= 2.1 x 10-5 moles/L
Which will consume 6 (2.1 x 10-5 ) = 1.26 x 10-4
M HCO3-
Cont..
 MW HCO3- = 61, so
 (1.26 x 10-4 moles/L)(61 g/mole)(103 mg/g) = 7.7 mg/L HCO3- are
consume,
 ∴ mg/L as CaCO3 = 7.7 (50)/61 = 6.31 mg/L HCO3- as CaCO3
Continues..
2) Jar testing was performed using alum on a raw drinking-water
source that contained an initial turbidity of 20 NTU and
alkalinity of 35 mg/L as CaCO3. The optimum coagulant
dosage was determined as 18 mg/L with final turbidity of 0.25
NTU. Determine the quantity of alkalinity consumed as
CaCO3.

3) Jar test were performed on untreated river water. An

optimum dose of 12.5 mg/L of alum was determined.
Determine the amount of natural alkalinity (mg/L as CaCO3)
consumed. If 50 x 10^6 gal./day of raw water are to be
treated, determine the amount of alum required (kg/year)

BFC 3103
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
(ii) Softening
(hardness removal)
 Hardness: the sum of all polyvalent cations. The
common units of expression are mg/L as CaCO3.
 Hardness: is used to characterize a water that
does not lather well, causes a scum in the bath
tube and leaves hard, white, crusty deposits
on coffee pot, tea kettles and hot water heaters.
 Water hardness: caused by divalent cations,
primarily calcium and magnesium ions(Ca2+ and
Mg2+)
 How the water becomes hard???

BFC 3103
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
continues..
 Refer to Fig 4.14 in the text book
CARBONATE
 TOTAL HARDNESS:

TH = CH + NCH NONCARBONATE
 When associated with alkalinity anion (eg: HCO3- , the
hardness is defined as carbonate hardness. Often called
temporary hardness heating the water removes it
 When associated with non alkalinity anion(eg: SO4- the
hardness is defined as noncarbonated hardness.called
permanent hardness becoz it is not removed when heating

BFC 3103
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
continues….
 The relationship between TH, CH and NCH (please refer Fig
4.16 text book)
 Calculation (eg)

A water has an alkalinity of 180 mg/L as CaCO3. the Ca2+

concentration is 155 mg/L and the Mg2+ concentration is 42
mg/L as the ion.
The pH is 8.1.Find the total, carbonate and noncarbonate
hardness

BFC 3103
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
continues…
 Hardwater classification
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Hardness range description
(mg/L CaCO3. )
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
0 -75 soft
75 -100 moderately hard
100-300 hard
300 very hard
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
• A water treatment goal is to provide water with a hardness in the range of 75
– 120 mg/L as CaCO3
HOW???
by Lime-Soda SOFTENING
treatment
continues….
 Lime-Soda Softening
to precipitate the Ca2+ as CaCO3 &
Mg2+ as Mg(OH)2

-hardness precipitation is based on the

following two solubility reaction:
Ca2+ +CO32- ↔CaCO3 Eq 1 Mg2+ +2OH-↔MgOH2 Eq 2

Objective: to precipitate calcium as

CaCO3 (s) .In order to precipitate, In order to precipitate Mg(OH)2(s),
the water must pH 10.3 The water must pH 11
Cont..
 In softening process – increase the concentration of CO32- and /or OH- by
addition of chemicals. – drive the reactions in Eq 1 & 2 to the right.
 Natural occurring alkalinity (HCO3-) is converted to carbonate (CO32- ) as
much as possible by addition of hydroxyl ions (OH-).
 Hydroxyl ions cause the carbonate buffer system to shift to the right,
thus provide the carbonate for the precipitation reaction. (buffer solution
– a solution that resist large changes in pH when acid/based is added or
when the solution is diluted).
Cont..
 Common source of hydroxyl ions is calcium hydroxide
[Ca(OH)2] – hydrated lime.
 Quicklime (CaO) is more economical than hydrated
lime– preferable in many water treatment plant
(WTP).
 Quicklime is converted at the WTP by mixing CaO
and H2O – produce slurry Ca(OH)2 (slaking process)
 To supply carbonate
CaO +ions
H2O –⇔add sodium
Ca(OH) + carbonate
heat
2
(Na2CO3) – soda ash or soda.
Softening reaction
 regulatedby controlling the pH
 General procedures:

FREE RADICALS pH IS RAISED TO

ARE PRECIPITATE
NEUTRALIZED THE CaCO3 (s)

CO32- IS ADDED TO
pH IS RAISED FURTHER
PRECIPITATE
TO REMOVE
THE NONCARBONATE
Mg(OH)2 (s)
HARDNESS
BFC 3103
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
Continues…
6 important softening reactions (occur
simultaneously in reality):
(1) NEUTRALIZATION OF CARBONIC
ACID(H2CO3)
- To neutralize any free acids that may b present in
the water
- NO hardness is removed in this step
(2) Precipitation of carbonate
hardness due to calcium
 pH must raised to 10.3 to percipitate the calcium
carbonate HOW??
 Have to convert all of the bicarbonate to
carbonate
 The carbonate then serves as common ion for
percipitation reaction
(3) Precipitation of carbonate
hardness due to magnesium
 Must add more lime to achieve a pH about
11.
 The reaction may be considered to occur in
two stages.
 First stage occurs when all of the carbonate
in step 2 are converted

It is SOLUBLE.so
the hardness of
water did not
CHANGE
continues…
 Secondstage- addition of more lime to
remove the hardness due to magnesium
 4) REMOVAL OF NONCARBONATE
HARDNESS DUE TO CALCIUM

 Ifnoncarbonate hardness need to be

removed due to calcium, NO further increase
in pH is required.
 Instead, additional carbonate in the form of
soda ash should be provided
4) REMOVAL OF NONCARBONATE
HARDNESS DUE TO MAGNESIUM
 To remove noncarbonate hardness due to
magnesium, both lime and soda should be
added
 The lime provides the hydroxyl ion for
percipitation of magnesium

There is NO change
in the hardness
becoz the calcium
is still in solution
THEN???
continues….
 The calcium need to be removed by adding
the soda

This is the same as rxn to

Remove hardness due to
calcium
cont
Step and Chemical addition Reason

Carbonate hardness
1. Lime = CO2 Destroy H2CO3
2. Lime=HCO3- Raise pH; convert HCO3- to CO32-
3. Lime = Mg2+ to be removed (in Raise pH; precipitate Mg(OH)2
excess 40 mg/L )
4. Lime = required excess
Drive reaction
Noncarbonate hardness
5. Soda –nancarbonate hardness to be Provide CO32-
removed
continues
 Try this question:
From the water analysis presented
below, determine the amount of lime and soda
(in mg/L as CaCO3) necessary to soften the
water to 80 mg/L hardness as CaCO3
-water composition (mg/L) : Ca2+ =95.20, Mg2+ =13.44,
Na+=25.76, CO2 = 19.36,
HCO3-=241.46, SO42- =53.77, Cl-=67.81
 0 mg/L as
CaCO3
Ca2+ Mg2+ Na+
CO2
HCO3- SO42- Cl-
mg/L as
0
CaCO3

 From the bar chart: TH= 293.37 mg/L as CaCO3 (noted: CO2 –does
not contribute to the hardness) CH = 198.00 mg/L as CaCO3 ; NCH =
TH-CH = 95.37 mg/L.
Cont..
Step Dose (mg/L as CaCO3)
Lime = CO2 44.14
Lime=HCO3- 198.00
Lime = Mg2+ - 40 = 55.37 -40 15.37
Lime = excess (equal to Mg2+ to be 20.00 (minimum)
removed) 277.51
Total

 The amount of lime to add is 277.51 mg/L as CaCO3.

the excess chosen was the minimum since (Mg2+ -40)
was less than 20.
 Determine if any NCH need to be removed.
 NCHf=final hardness (80 mg/L) –the CH left (40 mg/L)
Cont..
 NCH =80-40 = 40 mg/L
f

 Thus 40 mg/L may be left.

 NCH = NCH -NCH
R i f

 = 95.37 – 40 = 55.37 mg/L

 Thus the amount soda to be added =
55.37 mg/L as CaCO3.
 (iii) MIXING & FLOCCULATION
 Mixing: is the process whereby the chemicals
are quickly and uniformly dispersed in the
water AlOH / FeOH CaCO3 / MgOH

 During coagulation and softening, the

chemical reactions that take place in rapid
mixing form precipitates

Contacting
process: Precipitates formed in these process must be brought
into contact with one another so that they can
FLOCCULATION
agglomerate and form large particles, flocs
 MIXING
(i) Degree of mixing
 Ismeasured by velocity gradient, G
 The higher the G value, the more violent the
mixing
 G is a function of the power input into a unit
volume of water
velocity
gradient, s-1 G = (P/μv)1/2

power Volume of water in

input, W dynamic mixing tank, m3
viscosity, Pa.S
continues…
 Mechanisme of coagulation:
(i) Adsorption of the soluble hydrolysis species on
the colloid
(ii) Destabilization or sweep coagulation where the
colloid is trapped in the hydroxide percipitate
~the reaction is extremely fast, occur within 1 s
~G values in the range of 3,000 to 5,000 per second
and detention times on the order of 0.5 s are
recommended for adsorption – desorption reaction

** for SOFTENING, detention time on the order of 5 to

10 min may be required.G values to disperse and
maintain particles in suspension may be on the
order of 700 per second
 (ii) Rapid mix
 The most important physical operation
affecting coagulant dose efficiency
 The chemical reaction in coagulation is
completed in less than 0.1 s ~instantaneous
and complete
 Refer Fig 4-24, 4-25, 4-26, 4-27 in the t/book

 The selection of G and Gθ values for

coagulation is dependent on:
Mixing devices Chemicals selected

anticipated reaction
 (iii) Rapid mix tank
 Mixing equipment consists of an electric
motor, gear type speed reducer and either a
radial-flow impeller OR axial-flow impeller.
More turbulence
Preferred to rapid mixing
continues…
 Chemicals should be added below the
impeller, the point of the most mixing
 Tank and impeller geometries for mixing

Can be used to select

the proper basin depth
and surface area and
the impeller diameter

Fig 4-28
D= impeller diameter, T = equivalent tank diameter, H = water depth
B = water depth below impeller
 FLOCCULATION
 Rapid mix ~ most important physical factors
affecting coagulant efficiency
 Flocculation ~ the most important factor
affecting particle removal efficiency
 Objective of flocculation: brings the particles
into contact so that they will collide, stick
together and grow to a size that will readily
settle.
 However, too much Enough mixing must be provided

mixing will shear the flocs particles so that the

flocs is small and finely dispersed
continues…
 THEREFORE, the velocity gradient must be
controlled within a relatively narrow range
 The HEAVIER the flocs and the HIGHER the
suspended solids concentration, the MORE MIXING
is required to keep the flocs in suspension
 Softening flocs is HEAVIER than coagulation flocs
and therefore requires a higher G value
 Flocculation is normally accomplished with an axial-
flow impeller (fig 4-27), a paddle flocculator (fig 4-
29) or a baffled chamber (fig 4-30)
 Flocculation basin should be divided into at least
three compartment
(iii) Sedimentation -clarifier
 The solid-liquid separation using gravity
settling to remove suspended solid.
 In water treatment, sedimentation used are:
 To settle out discrete non-flocculent particles in a
dilute suspension.
 To settle out flocculent particles in a dilute
suspension.
Sedimentation tank
 Rectangular settling tank

Scum
Scrape/scum board trough

Influen
Effluent
t

section
Sloping flow
Sludge
Sludge Sludge scraper
withdraw hopper
al
Scum trough
Sludge
decanting
hopper
channel
under

Influe
nt Efflue
nt
Scrappe
r board plan

Scum Scum
box box
Circular settling tank

Dischar
ge

Effluent
channel
wei
r

Water
in

Central Sludge
inlet scrapper
well Water in Influent well

Sludge
withdraw
al

plan section
(iv) Filtration
 Water filtration: is a process for separating
suspended or colloidal impurities from water by
passage through a poros medium, usually a bed of
sand or other medium
 Water fills the pores (open spaces) between the
sand particles, and the impurities are left behind,
either clogged in the open spaces or attached to the
sand itself
 Methods of classifying filters:

(i) Type of medium used (sand, coal, dual media

(coal + sand), mixed media (coal +sand+garnet)
(ii) Loading rate : is the flow rate of water applied per
unit area of the filter. It is the velocity of the water
approaching the face of the filter
 continues…
 Loading rate:
Va = Q/As
Area surface
Face velocity = m/d of filter = m2
Loading rate = m3/d.m2
Flow rate on to the filter
surface =m3/d
 Based on the loading rate, the filters are described as:
(i) slow sand filters
(ii) rapid sand filters
(iii) high rate sand filters
 Comparison of typical ranges for design and
operating parameters for slow sand filtration and
rapid filtration
Process slow sand Rapid filtration
characteristics filtration

Filtration rate 0.05 - 0.2 m/hr 5-15 m/hr

media diameter 0.3 - 0.45 mm 0.5 - 1.2mm
bed depth 0.9-1.5m 0.6-1.8m
required head 0.9 - 1.5 m 1.8 -3 m
Run length 1-6 month 1-4 days
Pretreatment none required coagulation
Regeneration method Scraping backwashing
maximum raw water 10-50 NTU unlimited with proper
turbidity pretreatment
(v) Disinfection
 Is used to reduce pathogens (disease-producing
microorganisms: bacteria, viruses & amebic
cysts) to an acceptable level
 NOT the same as STERILIZATION
It implies the
 Purposeful disinfection must be destruction
of all living
capable of destroying all pathogens microorganism.
Drinking water
 To be of practical services, such water
not to be sterile
disinfectants must posses the following
properties:
continues…
(i) They must destroy the kinds and numbers of pathogens that
may be introduced into water within a practicable period of
time over an expected range in water temperature
(ii) They must meet possible fluctuations in composition,
concentration and condition of the waters or wastewaters to be
treated
(iii) They must be neither toxic to humans and domestic animals
nor unpalatable or otherwise objectionable in required
concentrations
(iv) They must be dispensable at reasonable cost and safe and
easy to restore, transport, handle and apply
(v) Their strength or concentration in the treated water must be
determined easily, quickly and automatically.
(vi) They must persist within disinfected water in a sufficient
concentration to provide reasonable residual protection against
its possible recontamination before use.
(vi) Adsorption
 Is a mass transfer process wherein a
substance is transferred from the liquid
phase to the surface of solid where it is
bound by chemical or physical forces
 In water treatment, the adsorbent (solid) is
activated carbon;
(i) granular (GAC)
(ii) Powdered (PAC)
continues…
 GAC
(i) Is added to the filter system by replacing the
anthracite (coal) with GAC – as an alternative for
taste and odor control
(ii) It will last from 1 - 3 years and then must be replaced
(iii) It is very effective in removing many taste and odor
compounds
(iv) It has been proposed to be used to remove naturally
occuring organic matter
continues…
 PAC
(i) Is fed to the raw water in a slurry
(ii) Generally used to remove taste and odor causing
substances
(iii) To provide some removal of synthetic organic
chemicals (SOCs)
(iv) The advantage: the capital equipment is
inexpensive and can be used on an as-needed
basis
(v) The disadvantage: the adsorption is often
incomplete (sometimes even doses of 50mg/L are
not sufficient)
 (vii) Membranes
 It is a thin layer of material that is capable of
separating materials as a function of their
physical and chemical properties when a
driving force is applied across the
membrane In the case of water treatment,
the driving force is supplied by
using a high pressure pump
The membrane type is selected
based on the constituents to
be removed
continues…
 In the membrane process, the feed stream
is divided into 2 streams (Fig 4-49)
(i) The concentrate OR reject stream
(ii) Permeate OR product stream
continues…
 Themembrane as at the heart of every
membrane process and can be considered
as barrier between the feed and product
water that does not allow certain
contaminants to pass (fig 4-50)
continues…
 The efficiency @ performance of a
membrane is determined by its selectivity
and the applied flow.
 The efficiency is called the flux and is
defined as the volume flowing through the
membrane per unit area and time,
m3/m2.s.
 The selectivity of a membrane toward a
mixture is expressed by its retention, R and is
given by : cp = [contaminant] in permeate
R = (cp – cf)/cp x 100 % Cf = [contaminant] in feed
continues…
 Membranes can be described by a variety of
criteria including:
(i) Membrane pore size
(ii) Molecular weight cutoff (MWCO)
(iii) Membrane material and geometry
(iv) Targeted materials to be removed
(v) Type of water quality to be treated, and/or
(vi) Treated water quality
(vii) Pressure driven
(viii) Electrically driven process
 IMPORTANT!!!
TYPES OF FILTER MEMBRANE SYSTEM
THANK
YOU