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Picture credit:
euler totient graph
http://www.123exp-math.com/t/01704079357/
Contents:
Closure
Associativity
Identity
Inverses
Non-Examples:
The Odd Integers are not closed under
Addition. For example, 3 and 5 are odd
integers, but 3+5 = 8 and 8 is not an odd
integer.
The Integers lack inverses under
Multiplication, as do the Rational numbers
(because of 0.) However, if we remove 0 from
the Rational numbers, we obtain an infinite
closed group under multiplication.
"members only"
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.html?
curid=12686870
Properties of a Group: Associativity
For example:
In Integers,
a+(b+c) = (a+b)+c.
Caution:
In Matrix Multiplication, The Commutative Property, also familiar
(A*B)*C=A*(B*C). from ordinary arithmetic on real numbers,
does not generally apply to all groups!
In function composition, Only Abelian groups are commutative.
f*(g*h) = (f*g)*h.
This may take some “getting-used-to,” at first!
This is a property of all groups. associative loop
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_algebraic_structures
Properties of a Group: Identity
For example,
For example...
In (Z,+), the inverse of x is -x.
In (Q*, X), the inverse of x is 1/x.
In (Zn, +), the inverse of x is n-x.
In abstract algebra, the inverse of an element a is usually written a-1.
This is why (GL,n) and (SL, n) do not include singular matrices; only
nonsingular matrices have inverses.
In Zn, the modular integers, the group operation is understood to be
addition, because if n is not prime, multiplicative inverses do not
exist, or are not unique.
The U(n) groups are finite groups under modular multiplication.
Abelian Groups
Abelian Groups are groups which have the
Commutative property, a*b=b*a for all a and b in G.
http://www.math.csusb.edu/faculty/susan/modular/modular.html
Non-Abelian Groups
Some examples of Non-Abelian
groups are:
The order of a group, |G|, is the number of elements in the group. The order of a
group may be finite or infinite.
The order of an element, |a|, is the smallest positive integer n such that an = e.
That is, H is closed under the operation, and includes inverses and identity.
(Note: H must use the same group operation as G. So Zn, the integers mod n, is euler portrait
not a subgroup of Z, the integers, because the group operation is different.) http://www.math.oh
io-
state.edu/~sinnott/
ReadingClassics/h
omepage.html
Cancellation and
Conjugation
In any group,
To conjugate an element a by x
means to multiply thus:
xax-1 or x-1ax
ab
then H is a subgroup of G. Show that for any two
http://www.trekearth.com/gallery/Asia/Brunei/photo653317.htm
Subgroup Tests:
The Finite Subgroup Test
The Center of a
Group is a
Subgroup of that
group. Subgroup lattice for D3
http://mathworld.wolfram.com/DihedralGroupD3.html
Examples of Subgroups:
The Centralizer of an Element
C(a)
The Centralizer of an
element C(a):
For any element a in G,
the Centralizer of a,
written C(a)
is the set
of all elements of G
which commute with a.
In an Abelian group,
C(a) is the entire group.
In a non-Abelian group,
C(a) may consist only of
the identity, a, and a-1,
For example, in D3,
or it may include other
elements as well. C(f) ={f, R0},
while C(R0)=D3
Criterion for a = a i j
(Exercise: Try verbalizing a similar “You may have to do something like this in a
statement for additive notation!)
stressful situation” - Dr. Englund
Properties of Cyclic Groups
Corollary 3
specifies this for Zn , the integers mod n under modular addition.
Since any Zn is a cyclic group of order n, gauss stamp
http://webpages.math.luc.
edu/~ajs/courses/322sprin
its generators would be the positive integers less than n g2004/worksheets/ws5.ht
ml
and relatively prime to n.
Properties of Cyclic Groups:
subgroups of Zn.
Number of Elements of Each Order
in a Cyclic Group
Let G be a cyclic group of order n.
Then, if d is a positive divisor of n, then For example, consider Z12 ...
the number of elements of order d Z12 = {0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11}
is φ(d) where φ is the Euler Phi function
We have 1 element of order 2 = {6}
φ(d) is defined as the number of positive because φ(2)=1.
integers less than d
and relatively prime to d. We have 2 elements of order 3 = {4,8}
because φ(3)=2.
The first few values of φ(d) are:
d 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 We have 2 elements of order 4 = {3,9}
φ(d) 1 1 2 2 4 2 6 4 6 4 10 4 because φ(4)=2.
In non-cyclic groups, if d is a divisor of And 2 elements of order 6 = {2,10}
the order of the group, then because φ(6)=2
the number of elements of order d is
a multiple of φ(d),
R90 = 1 2 3 4
2341
and a reflection across the horizontal
axis as:
Fh= 1 2 3 4 4 1
2143
Permutation Groups –
Definitions and Notation
S3 and Sn
Let S3 be the group of all one to one
functions from the set {1, 2, 3} to itself.
This is the same as saying, all
arrangements or permutations of these
three elements.
“I’m odd and I’ll always be odd!-- Joni This oddfellow is still odd even though he’s decomposed !
IOOF tombstone
http://farm1.static.flickr.com/203/485879582_fa65f4e4b1.jpg?v=0
Cycle Definitions, Examples
Even Permutation
Notation Odd Permutation
Examples of decomposition into 2-
If a permutation can be cycles:
written as an odd number of
(12345) = (15)(14)(13)(12)
two cycles, we say it is an
(1234) = (14)(13)(12)
odd permutation.
(1234)(247)=(14)(13)(12)(27)(24)
Cycle Notation,
more practice
Cycle notation,
introduced by Cauchy,
has many advantages
over Euler's grid
notation, although some
people may require more
practice to perform
calculations quickly and
accurately in this
notation.
http://www.usd.edu/trio/tut/ts/stylestest.html
http://www.d.umn.edu/~jgallian
http://groupexplorer.sourceforge.net/
quarternion group from
http://home.att.net/~numericana/
answer/groups.htm
rock stack from loveringllc.com
Suggested Activities:
Other Online Resources
Here are a few other good online resources. All of these have been
checked for malware and are safe.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_theory
(a good starting point)
http://www.math.miami.edu/~ec/book/
(a free online book on abstract algebra)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dihedral_group
(explains the dihedral groups)
http://members.tripod.com/~dogschool/cyclic.html
I
(explains Cauchy cycle notation)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euler%27s_totient_function
(Totient function, in Gallian text
referenced in connection with U-groups)
http://members.tripod.com/~dogschool/index.html
(an index to another online text)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symmetric_group
(explanations and applications of symmetric groups)
http://www.t209.com/article.php?art_id=26
(a vbasic program φ(n) for numbers up to 231)
http://eldar.mathstat.uoguelph.ca/dashlock/math3130/pdf/Chapter2b.pdf
(another explanation of Cayley cycle notation)
http://www.mathwire.com/seasonal/winter07.html
Acknowledgments
Dr. T. Englund, Professor of Mathematics, Central Washington University,
professor for Mathematics 461
All graphics in this presentation not created by J. Pinkney are reproduced from online sources
according to the Fair Use Provisions of the U.S. Copyright Act, with the html sources cited in the frame
on which they appear.