Advanced Materials and Coatings

John Texter
School of Engineering Technology, Eastern Michigan University,
Ypsilanti, MI 48197, USA

22 February 2011
Antimicrobial Anionic Surfactants and
Vectors for Delivering Silver Ion

22 February 2011
Silver as an Antimicrobial Agent
Serendipity
Plate Tests
Membrane Poration Hypothesis
MICs
Foley Catheter PU Doping
Fabrics
Household Surfaces
Toxicology
Proposed Applications
22 February 2011
Use of Reverse-Micelle Forming Anionic Surfactants as
Vectors for Ag+ Delivery into Hydrophobic Coatings

AOT or S1

Na+ easily ion

exchanged with
Ag+

22 February 2011
 Application of E. coli to AgAOT (AgS1) containing
polyurethane coatings

μmol
a
% weight Ag CFU/ml of E. coli at 12 h CFU/ml of E. coli at 24 h
Ag/cm² in Coating

0 0 5.8 x 105 , 2.9 x 105, 4.1 x 105 6.8 x 106 , 3.4 x 105, 1.2 x 105
0.00310 0.0012 6.5 x 104 , 4.2 x 104, 1.21 x 105 1.1 x 105, 1.0 x 10³, 3.0 x 10³

0.00737 0.0031 1.4 x 105, 1.3 x 105, 5.8 x 104 1.5 x 10³, 0, 3.0 x 10³
0.00131 0.0061 5.0 x 10², 1.1 x 104, 3.0 x 104 0, 1.7 x 104, 0
0.00250 0.012 5.5 x 104, 9.5 x 10³, 3.5 x 104 0, 0, 0

0.00597 0.031 0, 0, 0 0, 0, 0
0.0122 0.061 0, 0, 0 0, 0, 0
0.0261 0.122 0, 0, 0 0, 0, 0

22 February 2011
 Application of P. aeruginosa to AgAOT (AgS1)
containing polyurethane coatings
μmol
a
% weight CFU/ml of P. aeruginosa at 12 h CFU/ml of P. aeruginosa at 24
Ag/cm² Ag in h
Coating
0 0 5.5 x 104, 3.3 x 105, 1.0 x 105 5.0 x 104 , 3.2 x 105, 2.2 x 105

0.00310 0.0012 3.0 x 104, 9.5 x 105 , 2.6 x 104 0, 0, 0

0.00737 0.0031 1.1 x 104, 1.2 x 105, 3.3 x 104 0, 0, 7.5 x 10²

0.00131 0.0061 4.8 x 10³, 2.5 x 10², 6.3 x 10³ 0, 0, 0

0.00250 0.012 1.5 x 10³, 1.5 x 10³, 3.8 x 10³ 6.3 x 10³, 0, 5.0 x 10²

0.00597 0.031 0, 0, 0 0, 0, 0

0.0122 0.061 0, 0, 0 0, 0, 0

0.0261 0.122 0, 0, 0 0, 0, 0

22 February 2011
Silver as an Antimicrobial Agent
Serendipity
Plate Tests
Membrane Poration Hypothesis
MICs
Foley Catheter PU Doping
Fabrics
Household Surfaces
Toxicology
Proposed Applications
22 February 2011
 Serendipity
CFU/ml
Contact (h)
B. subtilis S. aureus

0 3.6x104 2.0x105
12 0 0
24 0 0

0 1.6x104 5.1x105
12 0 0
24 0 0

Initial tests of polyurethane coatings on glass slides showed

that sodium surfactant controls, comprising S1 (AOT) at 30%
by weight, killed all of the B. subtilis and S. aureus after 12
and 24 h exposure.

22 February 2011
 Serendipity
Broth Test (TSB)
An initial broth test with (AOT) S1 showed that growth of
the bacteria was inhibited in the broth containing S1, but
growth was sustained in the broth free of S1.
This broth test was then repeated at S1 levels of 1%,
0.5%, 0.25%, 0.12%, and 0.063% with B. subtilis, S.
aureus, E. coli, and P. aerugenosa. After incubation the
broths were plated onto TSA plates and again incubated.
No effect on E. coli and P. aerugenosa, but all the B.
subtilis was killed at every dilution, and only a very few
colonies were observed for S. aureus at the two lowest
dilution levels.

22 February 2011
Silver as an Antimicrobial Agent
Serendipity
Plate Tests
Membrane Poration Hypothesis
MICs
Foley Catheter PU Doping
Fabrics
Household Surfaces
Toxicology
Proposed Applications
22 February 2011
 Staphylococcus aureus
Bacillus subtilis
ATCC6538
ATCC33
Pos
Pos
Panel of 23
Escherichia coli
Pseudomonas aeruginosa
ATCC11229
ATCC15442
Neg
Neg
Bacteria and
Klebsiella pneumoniae
Enterobacteria aerogenes
EM22/ATCC13883
EM25
Neg
Neg
Yeast
Escherichia coli
Salmonella typhimurium
EM55
EM56/AA2202
Neg
Neg
Strains
Serratia marcescens
Streptococcus viridans
EM6
EM8
Neg
Pos
Investigated
Escherichia coli EM2 Neg
Staphylococcus aureus EM24/ATCC25923 Pos
Streptococcus bovis EM12 Pos
Enterococcus fecalis EM19 Pos
Enterococcus fecalis EM19 Pos
Staphylococcus epidermidis EM3/ATCC12228 Pos

TSB Only  

Streptococcus pyogenes EM14 Pos

Streptococcus agalactiae EM13 Pos
Candida tropicalis EM23 Yeast
Bacillus subtilis EM27 Pos
Micrococcus luteus EM17 Pos
Salmonella typhimurium EM57 Neg
Salmonella typhimurium EM38 Neg

22 February 2011
 Anionic Surfactants Evaluated

S1

S2

S3
S4

S5

22 February 2011
 Plate Tests With Surfactants
S1, S2, S3, S4, and S5

All Anionic

No Effect on Gram Negative Species!

22 February 2011
 Plate Tests

1010 organisms spotted onto each plate; growth

assessed after 18-24 h; P ~ intermediate result

22 February 2011
 Plate Tests

1010 organisms spotted onto each plate; growth

assessed after 18-24 h; P ~ intermediate result

22 February 2011
 Plate Tests
No Gram-negative activity.
S1 & S2 active against all Gram-positives tested.
All S’s active against S. bovis.
Relative activity
S1 ~ S2 > S3 > S4 ~ S5

Hydrophobicity (clogP)
S1(2.5) > S2(1.3) > S3(0.7) ~ S4(0.7) > S5(0)

Activity probably stems from tendency to partition into

membrane and disrupt membrane function.

22 February 2011
Silver as an Antimicrobial Agent
Serendipity
Plate Tests
Membrane Poration Hypothesis
MICs
Foley Catheter PU Doping
Fabrics
Household Surfaces
Toxicology
Proposed Applications
22 February 2011
Membrane Poration Hypothesis

22 February 2011
 Membrane Poration Hypothesis

Glycerol monooleate vesicles are porated by equilibrium adsorption of

surfactant (C16TAC). These cryo-TEMs represent CTAC/GMO ratios
of 1, 1.7, 2.3 (left, right, lower); the scale bar is 100 nm.
(M Kadi, P Hansson, M Almgren. J Phys Chem B (2004) 108:7344-7351; Determination of isotherms for
binding of surfactants to vesicles using a surfactant-selective electrode.)

22 February 2011
 Membrane Poration Hypothesis

Oil soluble surfactants will preferentially partition into the membrane bilayer
to form reverse micelles, thereby forming de facto pores. A structural model of
a reverse AOT micelle depicts such a hypothetical structure. The reverse
micelle was produced by Abel et al.2 in an extensive modeling study.

22 February 2011
Silver as an Antimicrobial Agent
Serendipity
Plate Tests
Membrane Poration Hypothesis
MICs
Foley Catheter PU Doping
Fabrics
Household Surfaces
Toxicology
Proposed Applications
22 February 2011
 MIC for S1
Optical Density vs. Log AOT Concentration
0.65

0.00
% AOT(S1) S. aureus

0.00

0.000
0.00

0.00
0.6 by wt Absorbance (CFU/mL)

0.00

02
0.55

0 97 5

44
19 5

0 48 5

1
0.45 0.376 0

39

22
0.5
Optical Density (ODU)

0.45 0.23 0.218 0

0.4 0.11 0.103 0
0.45

0.35
0.057 0.034 0
0.3
0.23

0.25 0.028 0.031 0

0.2 0.014 0.012 0
0.15
0.11

0.1 0.0071 0.017 150, 200

0.02
0.05

0.01

0.00

0.05 0.0039 0.552 Confluent Growth

8
7

0
71

0.00195 0.559 Confluent Growth

1 -0.05 0.1 0.01 0.001 0.0001 0.000975 0.549 Confluent Growth
Log10 AOT Con. (%)
0.000485 0.54 Confluent Growth
0.000244 0.59 Confluent Growth
0.000244 0.59 Confluent Growth

MIC = 0.01% S1 → 0.000122 0.547 Confluent Growth

0 0.573 Confluent Growth

MIC = 100 μg S1/mL Blank (TSB) 0 0

22 February 2011
 MIC for Ampicillin
Optical Density vs. Log Ampicillin Concentration AMP S. aureus
(μg/mL) Absorbance (CFU/mL)
64 0.008 0

0.0313
0.6
32 -0.001 0
0.55
0.5
Optical Density (ODU)

16 -0.006 10,10

0.125

0.0157
0.45 8 -0.004 30,18
0.4

0.06125
0.35

0.25
4 0.006 10,12
0.3 2 0.012 2,2
0.25
0.2 1 -0.01 3,10
0.15
0.5 0.016 CG
0.1
0.5
64

16

0.05
32

0.25 0.257 CG
2
4
8

0 0.125 0.34 CG
100 10 1 -0.05 0.1 0.01
0.06125 0.402 CG
Log10 Amp. Con (mg/uL) 0.0313 0.482 CG
0.0157 0.514 CG
0 0.542 CG

MIC = 1 μg/mL
MIC = 32 μg/mL Blank (TSB
+ AMP) 0 0

22 February 2011
 MICs

S1 appears 1/3 as effective

as Ampicillin!

22 February 2011
Silver as an Antimicrobial Agent
Serendipity
Plate Tests
Membrane Poration Hypothesis
MICs
Foley Catheter PU Doping
Fabrics
Household Surfaces
Toxicology
Proposed Applications
22 February 2011
 Application to PU for Catheters
TDI/PPG PU doped with AgAOT and contacted with
E. coli for 24 hours.

CFU/mL at 24 hours of E. coli

Doping
1st 2nd
3% AOT 2.3x106 2.7x106
1% AOT 8.5x105 5.0x105
0% AgAOT/AOT 2.6x106 1.90x106
0.01% AgAOT 3.7x106 2.0x106
0.03% AgAOT 2.5x106 2.4x106
0.1% AgAOT 1.7x105 1.9x105
0.3%AgAOT 0 0
1% AgAOT 0 0
3% AgAOT 0 0

22 February 2011
 Application to PU for Catheters
TDI/PPG PU doped with AgAOT and contacted with
S. aureus for 24 hours.

CFU/mL at 24 hours of S. aureus

Doping
1st 2nd
3% AOT 0 0
1% AOT 0 0
0% AgAOT/AOT 1.0x105 1.0x105
0.01% AgAOT 9.0x104 1.0x105
0.03% AgAOT 1.2x105 1.0x105
0.1% AgAOT 1.4x105 1.2x105
0.3%AgAOT 0 0
1% AgAOT 0 0
3% AgAOT 0 0

22 February 2011
 Such reverse micelle forming
surfactants make adding silver
ion to PU coating and bulk
formulations a simple “drop in”
reformulation.

22 February 2011
Silver as an Antimicrobial Agent
Serendipity
Plate Tests
Membrane Poration Hypothesis
MICs
Foley Catheter PU Doping
Fabrics
Household Surfaces
Toxicology
Proposed Applications
22 February 2011
 Application to Fabrics
A series of commercially available fabrics were
obtained as substrates upon which to test
AgAOT and AOT.
The commercially available fabrics are cotton,
jute, linen, silk, polyester, acetate, rayon, and
nylon.
AgAOT or AOT solution was sprayed on a
rectangular area of fabric in a spray booth, dried,
weighed to check deposition, and then sterilized
in an autoclave. The swatches were then cut up
into smaller pieces for repeat testing.
22 February 2011
Application to Fabrics

22 February 2011
Application to Fabrics

22 February 2011
Application to Fabrics

22 February 2011
Application to Fabrics

22 February 2011
Silver as an Antimicrobial Agent
Serendipity
Plate Tests
Membrane Poration Hypothesis
MICs
Foley Catheter PU Doping
Fabrics
Household Surfaces
Toxicology
Proposed Applications
22 February 2011
 Application to Household Surfaces
A series of commercially available indoor
household materials were obtained as substrates
upon which to test AgAOT and AOT.
These materials are window treatment/shade,
polyacrylate sheet, polycarbonate sheet,
aluminum sheet, ceramic tile, metal plate (light
switch box cover), wall paper, and vinyl tile.
Samples were cut into 2cm x 5cm coupons for
testing and were sterilized after coating with
AgAOT or AOT by spraying.

22 February 2011
Application to Household Surfaces

22 February 2011
Application to Household Surfaces

22 February 2011
Application to Household Surfaces

22 February 2011
Application to Household Surfaces

22 February 2011
Application to Household Surfaces

22 February 2011
Application to Household Surfaces

22 February 2011
Application to Household Surfaces

22 February 2011
Application to Household Surfaces

22 February 2011
Application to Household Surfaces

22 February 2011
Silver as an Antimicrobial Agent
Serendipity
Plate Tests
Membrane Poration Hypothesis
MICs
Foley Catheter PU Doping
Fabrics
Household Surfaces
Toxicology
Proposed Applications
22 February 2011
 Toxicology
In ophthalmological formulations,
concentrations greater than 0.1% may cause
conjunctival irritation; repeated use my delay
healing of corneal lesions.

22 February 2011
 Toxicology
Toxic dose in humans is unknown.
S1 (AOT) used extensively in mineral oil laxative
formulations and as a stool softener.
Toxicity following acute ingestion of excessive
amounts of laxatives is generally minimal and
limited to the gastrointestinal tract.
Hypothesis: Beneficent Gram positive flora
killed on ingestion may lead to intestinal
distress.

22 February 2011
 Toxicology
As a laxative and a stool softener -

In existing formulations/preparations, S1 is
supplied as 50, 60, and 100 mg capsules and
tablets, as 250 & 300 mg capsules, in solution
for oral administration at 10 and 50 mg/mL and
as syrup at 4 mg/mL.

22 February 2011
 Toxicology
In animals large doses of S1 produce anorexia,
vomiting, and diarrhea.
Even in chronic feeding tests, fatally poisoned
animals show only diarrhea and intestinal
bloating, with no gross lesions outside of
gastrointestinal tract.
Docusate salts (S1) can occasionally cause
diarrhea.
Morphological damage to the intestines has
been observed in rats.
May be hepatotoxic (liver).

22 February 2011
Silver as an Antimicrobial Agent
Serendipity
Plate Tests
Membrane Poration Hypothesis
MICs
Foley Catheter PU Doping
Fabrics
Household Surfaces
Toxicology
Proposed Applications
22 February 2011
 Proposed Applications

Develop prophylactic spray for surgeons to use

before closing.
Develop spray treatments for hospital, school,
and public building treatments.
Develop spray for topical burn treatment.
Develop cleanser for acne treatment.
Develop household prophylactic spray.

22 February 2011
 Summary
Family of anionic surfactants appear lethal to
Gram-positive bacteria and to some other
microbes.
MICs competitive with known antibiotic.
Preliminary fabric spray tests look promising.
Many new cleaning and prophylactic product
applications to consider.
Adding our surfactant technology to existing
cleansers produces a prophylactic long-acting
product.
Now is the time to capitalize on MRSA hysteria!

22 February 2011
Carbon Nanotube Membranes and
Coatings

22 February 2011
 Reactive Ionic Liquid Surfactants

Such reactive monomers found to produce

interesting new copolymers:
Ultrastable nanolatexes
Reversibly porating membranes
Ionic liquid polyelectrolytes
Di-stimuli responsive diblocks

22 February 2011
Microporous Materials From Polymerized
Microemulsion Gels

22 February 2011
 Nanolatex Primers
Latexes 20-28 nm diameter produced by
microemulsion polymerization

22 February 2011
 Nanolatex Primers
Comparison with commercially
available latexes.
These nanolatexes form robust films.
Partic le
Yo ung 's
Late x type S ize Mo no me rs
Mo dulus (MPa)
(nm)
Nano late x 50.5 ± 1.8 25 IL-Br/MMA
Co mmerc ial
Late x 1
1.41 ± 0.03 297 Vinyl/Ac rylic
Co mmerc ial
4.0 ± 1.8 322 Vinyl/Ac rylic
Late x 2
Co mmerc ial
2.0 ± 0.6 256 Vinyl/Ac rylic
Late x 3
Co mmerc ial S tyre ne , Butyl
Late x 4
1.4 ± 0.2 237
Ac rylate /Ac rylo nitrile
S tyre ne , Butyl
Co mmerc ial
140 ± 16 990 Ac rylate /S tyre nate d
Late x 5
Po lyme r/Po lyalkyle ne Glyc o l

22 February 2011
Nanolatexes Are Good Film Formers

Transparent Latex Films Treated with Aqueous KPF6

22 February 2011
 Nanolatex Primers
Pores can be generated in latex films by
soaking in aqueous KPF6.

22 February 2011
 Nanolatex Primers
Topcoat cross-cut adhesion/thickness (m)
results for nanolatex-based pigmented primer

22 February 2011
 Summary
Nanolatexes ultrastable
Nanolatex films 10x-35x tougher than
commercial latex films
Excellent adhesion on aluminum, plastic and
wood

22 February 2011
Nanolatex Dispersions of SWCNT
Equivalent optical density (average
absorbance over 600-400 nm)

16,000
OD/wt
fraction

22 February 2011
 Latex SuperPrimers
Equivalent optical density (average
absorbance over 600-400 nm)

22 February 2011
Proposed Exfoliation Mechanism

22 February 2011
MWCNT Unwinding by Nanolatex
Stabiization

22 February 2011
 MWCNT Electrical
Conductivity(Through Plane)

22 February 2011
MWCNT Thermal Diffusivity
(Through Plane)

1.1 mm2/s
(in plane)
SWCNT

22 February 2011
MWCNT Dispersions
How Concentrated?

wt% OD/wt fraction

0.476 55,210
1 56,500
2 57,115
3 60,333
4 59,205

22 February 2011
 MWCNT Dispersions
How much needed for complete
exfoliation?

22 February 2011
 MWCNT Dispersions
How much needed for complete exfoliation?

0.5-4% MWCNT – Critical amount of nanolatex

varies from 0.23 to 0.31 weight fraction of MWCNT

22 February 2011
 MWCNT Dispersions
Latex film dried and pyrolyzed @ 800°C

22 February 2011
Saturation Adsorption of Nanolatex on MWCNT

22 February 2011
Templated Coatings

22 February 2011
 Templated Coatings

3 mg MWCNT/cm2
Carbon Fiber Paper

λ|| ~ 1,600-2,000 mm2/s λ|| ~ 46 mm2/s

λ ~ 0.7-1.0 mm2/s λ ~ 5 mm2/s

λ|| ~ 4,600 mm2/s – aligned CNT array

Xie, Cai, & Wang, Phys Lett A 369 (2007) 120-123

22 February 2011
 Templated Coatings

One of our
experimental coatings
of Baytubes (3 mg/cm2)
out of aqueous
dispersion

Graphite, pyrolytic graphite,

Ag foil, and carbon fiber paper
controls; linear regression
line extrapolates 900%

22 February 2011
 Templated Coatings

Cp~ 0.75 J/g/K

λ|| ~ 1,600-2,000 + k ~ 0.84-1.05


mm2/s ρ ~ 0.7 g/cm3 kW/m/K

22 February 2011
Biomass Hydrothermal Carbon
Dispersions – Antonietti/Titrici
(MPIKG)

22 February 2011
Nanolatex Dispersion of WC

22 February 2011
Nanolatex Dispersion of WC

22 February 2011
Nanolatex Dispersion of WC

22 February 2011
Solvent-Free Nanofluids and Resins

22 February 2011
 Summary
Imidazolium-based nanolatexes efficiently disperse
CNTs in water, particularly MWCNT (up to 17% w/w).
As is dispersions suitable for printing conductors.
Simple coating produces MWCNT membranes suitable
for electrodes and membranes for various
applications.
The use of nano-WC/nanolatexes for stabilizing
MWCNT should produce a practical fuel cell electrode
for the ORR.
New and effective heat transfer elements suitable for
flexible electronics should derive from the presently
illustrated examples.

22 February 2011
 Solvent-Free Nanoparticle Nanofluids

A¯ =
R(OCH2CH2)7O(CH2)3SO3¯
R = C13-C15 alkyl
N+ = (–O)3-x(CH3O)xSi(CH2)3N+(CH3)(C10H21)2

A.B. Bourlinos, R. Herrara, N. Chalkia, D.D. Jiang, Q. Zhang,

L.A. Archer, E.P. Giannelis, Adv. Mater. 2005, 17, 234-237; DOI:
10/1002/adma.200401060

22 February 2011
Basic Nanofluid from “7 nm” Silica
Cl- N+
Cl-
+
N

SiO2 (CH3O)3Si(CH2)3N(CH3)(C10H21)2Cl SiO2

N+
Cl-
+
N
Cl-

A- N+
A-
C9H19 +
N
C9H19
SiO2 A=
KO3S O -20 -
O3 S O -20
+
N
A-
N+
A-

22 February 2011
 Amino Sulfonate
SiO2 (CH3O)3Si(CH2)3N(CH3)(C10H21)2Cl + (CH3O)3Si(CH2)3NH2
+

N+
N+

H2N SiO2 NH2

N+
Cl
N+

N+
N+
C9H19
H2N SiO2 NH2 O
N+
+ S O -20
Cl KO O
N+

N+
N+ C9H19
SiO2 NH2 O
H2N
S O -20
N+ O O
N+

22 February 2011
“Core-Free” Nanofluid

22 February 2011
“Core-Free” Nanofluid

22 February 2011
 Isothiocyanate Sulfonate

NH2 NCS
A- N+ A- N+
A- A-
N+ +
N

SiO2 CSCl2 SiO2

N+ - N+
A A-
+ +
N N
NH2 NCS
A- A-

C9H19
A- =
-
O3S O -20

22 February 2011
 Air Curing PU Clearcoats
NCO
NCO

CH3
H3C CH2 NHCOO CH2 CH O CH CH OOCHN CH2
6 2 CH3
CH3 CH3 + CH3

~ 1 di-NCO/NCS
44% rh; 24ºC
~ 20% MEK
22 February 2011
Air Curing PU Clearcoats

Cured at 50% rh and 25°C.

22 February 2011
Air Curing PU Clearcoats
TDI/nanofluid Physical State
0- 0.3 Powdery to Hard and Opaque
0.4 – 0.81 “Hard” and Clear
0.82 – 0.95 Tacky and Clear

0 0.1 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.8

22 February 2011
Air Curing PU Clearcoats

22 February 2011
Solvent-Free Acrylate UV Clearcoats
O

O
N+
N+
SiO2 C9H19
+
N A- =
-
O3S O -20

+
N+ O

SR494

Acrylate,SR494 at weight ratios of 50:50 (a50), 60:40 (a60), 80:20

(a80), and 0:100 (SR)
A photoinitiator, 2,2-dimethoxy-2-phenylacetophenone, was used at
1% (by weight of total reagents)

22 February 2011
 Solvent-Free Acrylate UV Clearcoats
Nanofluid Nanofluid
Modulus vs Displacement Into Surface Hardness vs Displacement Into Surface
5 0.25
a50 a60 a80 SR
a50 a60 a80 SR
4.5

4 0.2

3.5
Modulus (GPa)

Hardness (GPa)
3 0.15 increasing
2.5 nanofluid
2 0.1

1.5

1 0.05

0.5

0 0
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 014000 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 1200
Displacement Into Surface (nm) Displacement Into Surface (nm)

Modulus Hardness
Each property decreases with
increasing nanofluid

22 February 2011
 Solvent-Free Acrylate UV Clearcoats

Storage modului by nanoindentation of SR494-SiO 2-acrylate resins as a

function of nanofluid content at various penetration depths; (left) after curing
for several weeks; (right) after curing for 10 months.

22 February 2011
Solvent-Free Acrylate UV Clearcoats

Storage modulus by nanoindentation of SR494-SiO 2

nanocomposite resins as a function of silica content at
various penetration depths.
22 February 2011
 Summary
New approach to non-chipping clearcoats
Reactive nanofluids for new resin classes
New cross-linking materials
Composites become more flexible rather
than brittle

22 February 2011
 Advanced Materials and Coatings

John Texter
School of Engineering Technology, Eastern Michigan University,
Ypsilanti, MI 48197, USA

22 February 2011