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Management, 9/e
John R. Schermerhorn, Jr. Chapter 14: Motivation Theory and Practice

Prepared by: Jim LoPresti University of Colorado, Boulder Published by: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Planning Ahead Chapter 14 Study Questions

 How do individual needs influence

motivation?  What are the process theories of motivation?  What role does reinforcement play in motivation?  What are the alternative approaches to job design?

Management 9/e - Chapter 14

Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence motivation?

Types of content theories:

 Hierarchy  ERG

of needs theory

theory theory

 Two-factor  Acquired

needs theory

Management 9/e - Chapter 14

Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence motivation?

 Motivation and individual needs
 Motivationthe forces within the individual that

account for the level, direction, and persistence of effort expended at work.


Needs


  

Unfulfilled physiological and psychological desires of an individual. Explain workplace behavior and attitudes. Create tensions that influence attitudes and behavior. Good managers and leaders facilitate employee need satisfaction.

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Study Question 2: What are the different types of individual needs?

 Hierarchy of needs theory
 

Developed by Abraham Maslow. Lower-order and higher-order needs affect workplace behavior and attitudes. Lower-order needs:  Physiological, safety, and social needs.  Desires for physical and social well being. Higher-order needs:  Esteem and self-actualization needs.  Desire for psychological growth and development.
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Study Question 2: What are the different types of individual needs?

 Hierarchy of needs theory



Deficit principle


A satisfied need is not a motivator of behavior.

Progression principle


A need at one level does not become activated until the next lower-level need is satisfied.
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Figure 14.1 Opportunities for satisfaction in Maslows hierarchy of human needs.

Management 9/e - Chapter 14

Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence motivation?

 ERG theory  Developed by Clayton Alderfer.  Three need levels:

Existence needs desires for physiological and material well-being.  Relatedness needs desires for satisfying interpersonal relationships.  Growth needs desires for continued psychological growth and development.


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Study Question 2: What are the different types of individual needs?

 ERG theory


Any/all needs can influence behavior at one time.

Frustration-regression principle.


An already satisfied lower-level need becomes reactivated when a higher-level need is frustrated.

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Study Question 2: What are the different types of individual needs?

 Two-factor theory  Developed by Frederick Herzberg.  Hygiene factors:

Elements of the job context.  Sources of job dissatisfaction.


Satisfier factors:
Elements of the job content.  Sources of job satisfaction and motivation.


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Figure 14.2 Herzbergs two-factor theory.

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Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence motivation?

 Acquired needs theory  Developed by David McClelland.  People acquire needs through their life experiences.  Needs that are acquired:
Need for Achievement (nAch)  Need for Power (nPower)  Need for Affiliation (nAff)


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Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence motivation?

 Acquired needs theory  Need for Achievement (nAch)



Desire to do something better or more efficiently, to solve problems, or to master complex tasks.

People high in (nAch) prefer work that:

Involves individual responsibility for results.  Involves achievable but challenging goals.  Provides feedback on performance.

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Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence motivation?

 Acquired needs theory  Need for Power (nPower)

Desire to control other persons, to influence their behavior, or to be responsible for other people.  Personal power versus social power.


People high in (nPower) prefer work that:

Involves control over other persons.  Has an impact on people and events.  Brings public recognition and attention.

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Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence motivation?

 Acquired needs theory



Need for Affiliation (nAff)



Desire to establish and maintain friendly and warm relations with other persons. Involves interpersonal relationships. Provides for companionship Brings social approval.

People high in (nAff) prefer work that:

  

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Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence motivation?

 Questions for summarizing the

content theories of motivation:

 How many different individual needs

are there?
 Can a work outcome or reward satisfy

more than one need?

 Is there a hierarchy of needs?  How important are the various needs?

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Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation?



Process theories of motivation

 

How people make choices to work hard or not. Choices are based on:  Individual preferences.  Available rewards.  Possible work outcomes. Equity theory. Expectancy theory. Goal-setting theory.

Types of process theories:

  

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Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation?

 Equity theory
 

Developed by J. Stacy Adams. When people believe that they have been treated unfairly in comparison to others, they try to eliminate the discomfort and restore a perceived sense of equity to the situation.
 

Perceived inequity. Perceived equity.

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Figure 14.3 Equity theory and the role of social comparison.

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Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation?

 Equity theory


People respond to perceived negative inequity by changing

   

Work inputs. Rewards received. Comparison points. Situation.

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Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation?

 Managerial implications of equity theory
 Underpaid people experience anger.  Overpaid people experience guilt.  Perceptions of rewards determine motivational

outcomes.  Negative consequences of equity comparisons should be minimized, if not eliminated.  Do not underestimate the impact of pay as a source of equity controversies in the workplace.  Gender equity.


Comparable worth.

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Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation?

 Expectancy theory  Developed by Victor Vroom.  Key expectancy theory variables:

Expectancy belief that working hard will result in desired level of performance.  Instrumentality belief that successful performance will be followed by rewards.  Valence value a person assigns to rewards and other work related outcomes.


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Figure 14.4 Elements in the expectancy theory of motivation.

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Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation?

 Expectancy theory


Motivation (M), expectancy (E), instrumentality (I), and valence (V) are related to one another in a multiplicative fashion:
M=ExIxV

If either E, I, or V is low, motivation will be low.

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Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation?



Managerial implications of expectancy theory



To maximize expectancy, managers should:

   

Select workers with ability. Train workers to use ability. Support work efforts. Clarify performance goals.

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Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation?



Managerial implications of expectancy theory



To maximize instrumentality, managers should:

 

Clarify psychological contracts. Communicate performance-outcome possibilities. Identify rewards that are contingent on performance.
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Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation?



Managerial implications of expectancy theory



To maximize valence in a positive direction, managers should:

 Identify  Adjust

individual needs.

rewards to match individual

needs.
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Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation?



Key issues and principles in the goal-setting process:

     

Set specific goals. Set challenging goals. Build goal acceptance and commitment. Clarify goal priorities. Provide feedback on goal accomplishment. Reward goal accomplishment.
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Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation?

 Goal-setting theory
 

Developed by Edwin Locke. Properly set and well-managed task goals can be highly motivating. Motivational effects of task goals:  Provide direction to people in their work.  Clarify performance expectations.  Establish a frame of reference for feedback.  Provide a foundation for behavioral selfmanagement.

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Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation?

 Goal-setting theory
 Participation in goal setting


unlocks the motivational potential of goal setting. management by objectives (MBO) promotes participation. when participation is not possible, workers will respond positively if supervisory trust and support exist.
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Study Question 3: What role does reinforcement play in motivation?



Fundamentals of reinforcement theory



Reinforcement theory focuses on the impact of external environmental consequences on behavior. Law of effect impact of type of consequence on future behavior. Operant conditioning:
 

Developed by B.F. Skinner. Applies law of effect to control behavior by manipulating its consequences.

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Study Question 3: What role does reinforcement play in motivation?

 Operant conditioning strategies:



Positive reinforcement


Increases the frequency of a behavior through the contingent presentation of a pleasant consequence.

Negative reinforcement


Increases the frequency of a behavior through the contingent removal of an unpleasant consequence.
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Study Question 3: What role does reinforcement play in motivation?

 Operant conditioning strategies:



Punishment


Decreases the frequency of a behavior through the contingent presentation of an unpleasant consequence. Decreases the frequency of a behavior through the contingent removal of an pleasant consequence.

Extinction


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Study Question 3: What role does reinforcement play in motivation?

Successful implementation of positive reinforcement is based on  Law of contingent reinforcement

 Reward

delivered only if desired behavior is exhibited. immediate the delivery of a reward, the more reinforcement value it has.
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Law of immediate reinforcement

 More

Study Question 3: What role does reinforcement play in motivation?



Guidelines for using positive reinforcement:

    

Clearly identify desired work behaviors. Maintain a diverse inventory of rewards. Inform everyone about what must be done to get rewards. Recognize individual differences when allocating rewards. Follow the laws of immediate and contingent reinforcement.
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Study Question 3: What role does reinforcement play in motivation?



Guidelines for using punishment:



Tell the person what is being done wrong. Tell the person what is being done right. Match the punishment to the behavior. Administer punishment in private. Follow laws of immediate and contingent reinforcement.
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Figure 14.5 Applying reinforcement strategies: case of total quality management.

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Study Question 3: What role does reinforcement play in motivation?



Schedules of reinforcement:


Continuous reinforcement administers a reward each time a desired behavior occurs. Intermittent reinforcement rewards behavior only periodically. Acquisition of behavior is quicker with continuous reinforcement. Behavior acquired under an intermittent schedule is more permanent. Shaping is the creation of a new behavior by positive reinforcement of successive approximations to it.

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Study Question 4: What are the alternative approaches to job design?

 Job.


A collection of tasks performed in support of organizational objectives. The process of creating or defining jobs by assigning specific work tasks to individuals and groups.

 Job design.


Jobs should be designed so that both performance and satisfaction result.

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Study Question 4: What are the alternative approaches to job design?

 Job simplification.  Standardizing work procedures and employing people in well-defined and highly specialized tasks.  Simplified jobs are narrow in job scope and low in job depth.  Automation.
Total mechanization of a job.  Most extreme form of job simplification.


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Study Question 4: What are the alternative approaches to job design?



Potential advantages of job simplification:  Easier and quicker training of workers.  Workers are less difficult to supervise.  Workers are easier to replace.  Development of expertise in doing repetitive tasks.

Potential disadvantages of job simplification:  Productivity suffers.  Cost increases due to absenteeism/ turnover of unhappy workers.  Poor performance may result from worker boredom/ alienation.

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Figure 14.6 A continuum of job design alternatives.

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Study Question 4: What are the alternative approaches to job design?

 Job rotation and job enlargement:
 

Expands job scope. Job rotation.  Increases task variety by periodically shifting workers among jobs involving different task assignments. Job enlargement.  Increases task variety by combining two or more tasks previously assigned to separate workers.  Horizontal loading.
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Study Question 4: What are the alternative approaches to job design?

 Job enrichment.


Building more opportunities for satisfaction into a job by expanding its content. Expands both job scope and job depth. Frequently accomplished through vertical loading.

 

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Study Question 4: What are the alternative approaches to job design?

 Critical psychological states:

 Experienced meaningfulness of work.


Experienced responsibilities for work outcomes.

Knowledge of actual results of work activities.

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Study Question 4: What are the alternative approaches to job design?

 Core job characteristics:

 Skill variety.
   

Task identity. Task significance. Autonomy. Feedback.

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Study Question 4: What are the alternative approaches to job design?



Moderating variables:


Growth-need strength (GNS).



People with high GNS will respond most positively to enriched jobs.

 

Knowledge and skills. Context satisfactions.

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Study Question 4: What are the alternative approaches to job design?

 Improving core job characteristics:

    

Form natural units of work. Combine tasks. Establish client relationships. Open feedback channels. Practice vertical loading.

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Study Question 4: What are the alternative approaches to job design?



Checklist for enriching jobs:



Remove controls that limit peoples discretion in their work. Grant people authority to make decisions about their work. Make people understand their accountability for results. Allow people to do whole tasks or complete units of work. Make performance feedback available.

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Study Question 4: What are the alternative approaches to job design?

 Compressed workweek.  Any work schedule that allows a fulltime job to be completed in less than the standard 5 days of 8-hour shifts.  Benefits more leisure time, lower commuting costs, lower absenteeism, and potentially improved performance.  Disadvantages increased fatigue, family adjustment problems, increased scheduling problems, possible customer complaints, and union opposition.
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Study Question 4: What are the alternative approaches to job design?

 Flexible working hours.



Any work schedule that gives employees some choice in the pattern of their daily work hours.
 Core

time all employees must be at work.  Flextime allows employees to schedule around personal and family responsibilities.
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Study Question 4: What are the alternative approaches to job design?



Potential benefits of flexible working hours:



People have greater autonomy in work scheduling while ensuring maintenance of work responsibilities. Organizations can attract and retain employees who have special non-work responsibilities. Worker morale may be improved.
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Study Question 4: What are the alternative approaches to job design?

 Job sharing.


One full-time job is split between two or more persons.

 Work sharing.


An agreement between employees to cut back their work hours to avoid layoffs or termination.

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Study Question 4: What are the alternative approaches to job design?

 Potential advantages of work sharing:


Trained and loyal workers can be retained while temporarily cutting labor costs. Continued work but with reduced earnings for those who would otherwise be laid off.

 Potential disadvantages of work sharing;



Employees who might otherwise be protected by seniority may suffer an income loss.

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Figure 14.7 Job design and individual work outcomes using the core characteristics model.

Source: Reprinted by permission from J. Richard Hackman and Greg R. Oldham, Work Redesign (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1980), p. 90.

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Study Question 4: What are the alternative approaches to job design?

 Telecommuting.


A work arrangement that allows a portion of scheduled work hours to be completed outside of the office. Hoteling. Virtual offices.

 

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Study Question 4: What are the alternative approaches to job design?

 Potential advantages of telecommuting:


   

Freedom from  Constraints of commuting.  Fixed hours.  Special work attire.  Direct contact with supervisors. Increased productivity. Fewer distractions. Being ones own boss. Having more personal time.

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Study Question 4: What are the alternative approaches to job design?

 Potential disadvantages of

telecommuting:
      

Working too much. Having less personal time. Difficulty in separating work and personal life. Less time for family. Feelings of isolation. Loss of visibility for promotion. Difficulties supervising work-at-home employees from a distance.

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Study Question 4: What are the alternative approaches to job design?

 Part-time work.  Work done on any schedule less than the standard 40-hour workweek and does not qualify person as a full-time employee.  Contingency workers
Part-time workers who supplement the full-time workforce, often on a long-term basis.  Now constitute 30 percent of the American workforce.

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Study Question 4: What are the alternative approaches to job design?

 Implications of part-time work:  Provides employers with flexibility in controlling labor costs and dealing with cyclical labor demands.  Temporary workers may lack commitment and be less productive.  Contingency workers are often paid less and dont receive important fringe benefits.

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Figure 14.8 A sample flexible working hours schedule.

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