BASIC ELECTRICAL THEORY

ELECTRICITY

Electricity is defined as "the flow of electrons through simple materials and devices" or "that force which moves electrons." Scientists think electricity is produced by very tiny particles called electrons and protons. These particles are too small to be seen, but exist as subatomic particles in the atom.

 Electricity starts with electrons. Every atom contains one or more electrons. Electrons have a negative charge. Atoms will have the same number of Electrons in the orbit as there are Protons in the center. Elements with more than 4 Electrons in their outer rings make good insulators. Elements with less than 4 Electrons in their outer rings make good conductors

Electrons (29 total)

Valence Ring (Outer Ring)

Protons (29 total)

RESISTANCE

 Resistance is defined as the opposition to current flow. The amount of opposition to current flow produced by a material depends upon the amount of available free electrons it contains and the types of obstacles the electrons encounter as they attempt to move through the material. Resistance is measured in ohms and is represented by the symbol (R) in equations.

 One ohm is defined as that amount of resistance that will limit the current in a conductor to one ampere when the potential difference (voltage) applied to the conductor is one volt. The shorthand notation for ohm is the Greek letter capital omega (W). The resistance of an object is defined as the ratio of voltage across it to current through it: R = V/I

 If a voltage is applied to a conductor, current flows. The amount of current flow depends upon the resistance of the conductor. The lower the resistance, the higher the current flow for a given amount of voltage. The higher the resistance, the lower the current flow.

CONDUCTANCE

 The opposite, or reciprocal, of resistance is called conductance. Resistance is the opposition to current flow. Since resistance and conductance are opposites, conductance can be defined as the ability to conduct current. For example, if a wire has a high conductance, it will have low resistance, and vice-versa.

 Conductance is found by taking the reciprocal of the resistance. The unit used to specify conductance is called "mho," which is ohm spelled backwards. The symbol for "mho is the Greek letter omega inverted ( )

INSULATOR

 An Insulator, also called a Dielectric, is a material that resists the flow of electric charge. In insulating materials valence electrons are tightly bonded to their atoms. These materials are used in electrical equipment as insulators or insulation. Their function is to support or separate electrical conductors without allowing current through themselves

 The atoms of good insulators have their valence shells filled with eight electrons, which means they are more than half filled. Examples of insulators are rubber, plastics, glass, and dry wood.

CONDUCTOR

 Conductors are materials with electrons that are loosely bound to their atoms, or materials that permit free motion of a large number of electrons. Atoms with only one valence electron, such as copper, silver, and gold, are examples of good conductors. Most metals are good conductors.

RESISTOR

 Resistors are made of materials that conduct electricity, but offer opposition to current flow. These types of materials are also called semiconductors because they are neither good conductors nor good insulators. Semiconductors have more than one or two electrons in their valence shells, but less than seven or eight. Examples of semiconductors are carbon, silicon, germanium, tin, and lead. Each has four valence electrons.

CURRENT

 Electric current is a flow of electric charge through a medium. This charge is typically carried by moving electrons in a conductor such as wire. It can also be carried by ions in an electrolyte, or by both ions and electrons in a plasma.

 The SI unit for measuring the rate of flow of electric charge is the ampere, which is charge flowing through some surface at the rate of one coulomb per second. Electric current is measured using an ammeter

VOLTAGE

 The basic unit of measure for potential difference is the volt (symbol V), and, because the volt unit is used, potential difference is called voltage. An objects electrical charge is determined by the number of electrons that the object has gained or lost.

 A volt is defined as a difference of potential causing one coulomb of current to do one joule of work. A volt is also defined as that amount of force required to force one ampere of current through one ohm of resistance. Voltage can be measured by a voltmeter. The unit of measurement is the volt.

POWER

 Electric power is the rate at which electric energy is transferred by an electric circuit. The SI unit of power is the watt. When electric current flows in a circuit, it can transfer energy to do mechanical or thermodynamic work. Devices convert electrical energy into many useful forms

EMF (ElectroMotive Force)

Electromotive Force, or most commonly EMF, is "that which tends to cause current (actual electrons and ions) to flow More formally, EMF is the external work expended per unit of charge to produce an electric potential difference across two opencircuited terminals

The electric potential difference is created by separating positive and negative charges, thereby generating an electric field. The created electrical potential difference drives current flow if a circuit is attached to the source of EMF The basic unit of measure of potential difference is the "volt."

POWER FACTOR

 The Power Factor of an AC electric power system is defined as the ratio of the real power flowing to the load to the apparent power in the circuit, and is a dimensionless number between 0 and 1 (frequently expressed as a percentage, e.g. 0.5 pf = 50% pf). Real Power is the capacity of the circuit for performing work in a particular time.

 Apparent Power is the product of the current and voltage of the circuit. Due to energy stored in the load and returned to the source, or due to a non-linear load that distorts the wave shape of the current drawn from the source, the apparent power will be greater than the real power

 In alternating current circuits, energy storage elements such as inductance and capacitance may result in periodic reversals of the direction of energy flow. The portion of power due to stored energy, which returns to the source in each cycle, is known as Reactive Power

 AC power flow has the three components: Real Power (also known as active power) (P), measured in watts (W); Apparent Power (S), measured in volt-amperes (VA); and Reactive Power (Q), measured in reactive volt-amperes (var). The power factor is defined as: P/S

 In the case of a perfectly sinusoidal waveform, P, Q and S can be expressed as vectors that form a vector triangle such that: S2 = P2 + Q2 If f is the phase angle between the current and voltage, then the power factor is equal to the cosine of the angle, |cosf| , and: | P| = | S | |cosf|
Since the units are consistent, the power factor is by definition a dimensionless number between 0 and 1

For example, to get 1 kW of real power, if the power factor is unity, 1 kVA of apparent power needs to be transferred (1 kW 1 = 1 kVA). At low values of power factor, more apparent power needs to be transferred to get the same real power. To get 1 kW of real power at 0.2 power factor, 5 kVA of apparent power needs to be transferred (1 kW 0.2 = 5 kVA). This apparent power must be produced and transmitted to the load in the conventional fashion, and is subject to the usual distributed losses in the production and transmission processes

CAPACITANCE

 Capacitance is the ability of a body to hold an electrical charge. Capacitance is also a measure of the amount of electrical energy stored (or separated) for a given electric potential In a parallel plate capacitor, capacitance is directly proportional to the surface area of the conductor plates and inversely proportional to the separation distance between the plates.

 If the charges on the plates are +Q and Q, and V gives the voltage between the plates, then the capacitance is given by C = Q/V The SI unit of capacitance is the farad; 1 farad is 1 coulomb per volt The energy (measured in joules) stored in a capacitor is equal to the work done to charge it.

INDUCTANCE

 Inductance is defined as the ability of a coil to store energy, induce a voltage in itself, and oppose changes in current flowing through it. Inductance is the property of an electrical circuit causing voltage to be generated proportional to the rate of change in current in a circuit. This property also is called Self Inductance The symbol used to indicate inductance in electrical formulas and equations is a capital L.

 The units of measurement are called henries. One henry is the amount of inductance (L) that permits one volt to be induced (VL) when the current through the coil changes at a rate of one ampere per second. To add inductance to a circuit, electronic components called inductors are used, typically consisting of coils of wire to concentrate the magnetic field and to collect the induced voltage. This is analogous to adding capacitance to a circuit by adding capacitors

 An inductor is a device that tries to keep a constant current flowing through itself. Inductance is caused by the magnetic field generated by electric currents according to Ampere's law.

IMPEDANCE

 Impedance is the resistance to current flow. It is a very important concept in any electrical circuit. For instance the (internal) impedance of a gates output should be low so that it may drive its output more easily. The input impedance of a gate should be high so that it may be driven easily (without it absorbing a large current, which would lead to a high power loss).

VOLTAGE DROP

 Voltage Drop is the reduction in voltage in the passive elements (not containing sources) of an electrical circuit. Voltage drops across conductors, contacts, connectors and source internal resistances are undesired as they reduce the supplied voltage while voltage drops across loads and other electrical and electronic elements are useful and desired.

 In electrical wiring, national and local electrical codes may set guidelines for maximum voltage drop allowed in a circuit conductors, to ensure reasonable efficiency of distribution and proper operation of electrical equipment (the maximum permitted voltage drop varies from one country to another).

 Voltage drop may be neglected when the impedance of the interconnecting conductors is small relative to the other components of the circuit. Excessive voltage drop will result in unsatisfactory operation of electrical equipment, and represents energy wasted in the wiring system. Voltage drop can also cause damage to electrical motors

MOTOR

 An Electric Motor converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. Most electric motors operate through interacting magnetic fields and currentcarrying conductors to generate force, although electrostatic motors use electrostatic forces. The reverse process, producing electrical energy from mechanical energy, is done by generators such as an alternator or a dynamo

 Types of Motors a. AC Motor b. DC Motor c. Universal Motor

 An AC Motor is an electric motor driven by an alternating current. An AC motor has two basic electrical parts: a. Stator b. Rotor

 The stator is in the stationary electrical component. It consists of a group of individual electromagnets arranged in such a way that they form a hollow cylinder, with one pole of each magnet facing toward the center of the group. The term, "stator" is derived from the word stationary. The stator then is the stationary part of the motor.

 The rotor is the rotating electrical component. It also consists of a group of electromagnets arranged around a cylinder, with the poles facing toward the stator poles. The rotor, obviously, is located inside the stator and is mounted on the motor's shaft. The term "rotor" is derived from the word rotating. The rotor then is the rotating part of the motor.

 The objective of these motor components is to make the rotor rotate which in turn will rotate the motor shaft. This rotation will occur because of the magnetic phenomenon that unlike magnetic poles attract each other and like poles repel. If we progressively change the polarity of the stator poles in such a way that their combined magnetic field rotates, then the rotor will follow and rotate with the magnetic field of the stator.

 There are two main types of AC motors, depending on the type of rotor used a. Induction Motor b. Synchronous Motor

 Universal Motors The stator magnets, too, could be made as electromagnets. The two stators are wound in the same direction so as to give a field in the same direction and the rotor has a field which reverses twice per cycle because it is connected to brushes, which are omitted here.

 One advantage of having wound stators in a motor is that one can make a motor that runs on AC or DC, a so called Universal Motor. When you drive such a motor with AC, the current in the coil changes twice in each cycle (in addition to changes from the brushes), but the polarity of the stators changes at the same time, so these changes cancel out

CIRCUIT BREAKER

 A Circuit Breaker is an automatically operated electrical switch designed to protect an electrical circuit from damage caused by overload or short circuit. Its basic function is to detect a fault condition and, by interrupting continuity, to immediately discontinue electrical flow.

 Unlike a fuse, which operates once and then has to be replaced, a circuit breaker can be reset (either manually or automatically) to resume normal operation. Circuit breakers are made in varying sizes, from small devices that protect an individual household appliance up to large switchgear designed to protect high voltage circuits feeding an entire city

Types of Circuit Breaker a. b. c. d. e. f. Low voltage circuit breakers Medium-voltage circuit breakers High-voltage circuit breakers Magnetic circuit breaker Thermal magnetic circuit breaker Common trip breakers

MCB - Miniature Circuit Breaker MCCB - Molded Case Circuit Breaker OCB Oil Circuit Breaker VCB - Vacuum circuit breakers

ELECTRICAL INSTRUMENTS

MULTIMETER

 A multimeter or a multitester, also known as a or VOM(Volt-Ohm meter), is an electronic measuring instrument that combines several measurement functions in one unit. A typical multimeter may include features such as the ability to measure voltage, current and resistance.

 Multimeters may use analog or digital circuitsanalog multimeters(AMM) and digital multimeters (often abbreviated DMM or DVOM.) A multimeter can be a hand-held device useful for basic fault finding and field service work or a bench instrument which can measure to a very high degree of accuracy

 They can be used to troubleshoot electrical problems in a wide array of industrial and household devices such as electronic equipment, motor controls, domestic appliances, power supplies, and wiring systems.

DIGITAL MULTIMETER

ANALOG MULTIMETER

CLAMPMETER

CLAMPMETER

 A current clamp or current probe is an electrical device having two jaws which open to allow clamping around an electrical conductor. This allows properties of the electric current in the conductor to be measured, without having to make physical contact with it, or to disconnect it for insertion through the probe.

 Current clamps are usually used to read the magnitude of a sinusoidal current (as invariably used in alternating current (AC) power distribution systems), but in conjunction with more advanced instrumentation the phase and waveform are available

An electrical meter with integral AC current clamp is known as a clamp meter, clamp-on ammeter or tong tester In order to use a clamp meter, only one conductor is normally passed through the probe; if more than one conductor is passed through then the measurement would be the vector sum of the currents flowing in the conductors and would depend on the phase relationship of the currents

 In particular if the clamp is closed around a two-conductor cable carrying power to equipment the same current flows down one conductor and up the other, with a net current of zero. The reading produced by a conductor carrying a very low current can be increased by winding the conductor around the clamp several times; the meter reading divided by the number of turns is the current, with some loss of accuracy due to inductive effects.

INSULATION TESTER

 The megger is a portable instrument used to measure insulation resistance. The megger consists of a hand-driven DC generator and a direct reading ohm meter. A simplified circuit diagram of the instrument is shown in Figure

Circuit Diagram

 The moving element of the ohm meter consists of two coils, A and B, which are rigidly mounted to a pivoted central shaft and are free to rotate over a C-shaped core (C on Figure ). These coils are connected by means of flexible leads. The moving element may point in any meter position when the generator is not in operation.

 As current provided by the hand-driven generator flows through Coil B, the coil will tend to set itself at right angles to the field of the permanent magnet. With the test terminals open, giving an infinite resistance, no current flows in Coil A. Thereby, Coil B will govern the motion of the rotating element, causing it to move to the extreme counter-clockwise position, which is marked as infinite resistance. Coil A is wound in a manner to produce a clockwise torque on the moving element.

 With the terminals marked "line" and "earth" shorted, giving a zero resistance, the current flow through the Coil A is sufficient to produce enough torque to overcome the torque of Coil B. The pointer then moves to the extreme clockwise position, which is marked as zero resistance. Resistance (Rl) will protect Coil A from excessive current flow in this condition.

 When an unknown resistance is connected across the test terminals, line and earth, the opposing torques of Coils A and B balance each other so that the instrument pointer comes to rest at some point on the scale. The scale is calibrated such that the pointer directly indicates the value of resistance being measured.

BATTERY

Lead-Acid Battery

 A lead-acid battery is a electrical storage device that uses a reversible chemical reaction to store energy. It uses a combination of lead plates or grids and an electrolyte consisting of a diluted sulphuric acid to convert electrical energy into potential chemical energy and back again. The electrolyte of lead-acid batteries is hazardous to your health and may produce burns and other permanent damage if you come into contact with it.

 Invented in 1859 by French physicist Gaston Plant, Lead-acid batteries are the oldest type of rechargeable battery. Despite having a very low energy-toweight ratio and a low energy-tovolume ratio, their ability to supply high surge currents means that the cells maintain a relatively large power-to-weight ratio. These features, along with their low cost, make them attractive for use in motor vehicles to provide the high current required by automobile starter motors

 Basically there are two types of lead acid batteries. The two main types are Starting and Deep Cycle. The starting battery (SLI starting lights ignition) is designed to deliver quick bursts of energy (such as starting engines) and therefore has a greater plate count. The plates are thinner and have somewhat different material composition.

 The deep cycle battery has less instant energy, but greater long-term energy delivery. Deep cycle batteries have thicker plates and can survive a number of discharge cycles. Starting batteries should not be used for deep cycle applications because the thinner plates are more prone to warping and pitting when discharged. The so-called Dual Purpose Battery is a compromise between the two types of batteries, though it is better to be more specific if possible

 Lead Acid battery works on the principle of a chemical reaction to produce voltage and current. The process occurs in the following manner: a lead acid battery consists of lead electrodes immersed in a diluted solution of sulphuric acid known as an electrolyte. The electrodes are of two types, the positive electrode being composed of lead dioxide while the negative electrode comprising of soft spongy lead

 A chemical reaction takes place within the battery in which the lead combines with sulphate ions in the solution to produce lead sulphate and free electrons. If a wire is connected between the two terminals the electrons flow to the positive end setting up the flow of current where another reaction is induced which results in the combining of lead dioxide, hydrogen and sulphate ions from the electrolyte and the free electrons produce more lead sulphate and water.

 Thus the electrolyte slowly gets converted in to water as the battery is discharged while the lead plates get converted in to lead sulphate. The reaction is however reversible and both plates can be regenerated by way of charging. A load is connected mid way between the battery terminals and a voltage of about 2 volts can be obtained in a conventional single unit of a lead acid battery.

Nickel Cadmium Battery

 The nickel-cadmium battery (commonly abbreviated NiCd or NiCad) is a type of rechargeable battery using nickel oxide hydroxide and metallic cadmium as electrodes. This heavy metal is an environmental hazard, and is highly toxic to all higher forms of life. NiCd batteries are also more costly than lead-acid batteries because nickel and cadmium are more costly materials.

 There are two types of NiCd batteries: Sealed and Vented. Nickel-cadmium batteries for portable use are of the sealed type and are generally of sintered plate construction. They may be of cylindrical , button or prismatic design. Sealed nickel-cadmium batteries are in strong demand for use in consumer electronic equipment such as cellular telephones, portable tools, toys, camcorders and other domestic cordless appliances.

 They are also used for memory back-up in computing equipment, military and civil communications, emergency lighting and many other similar applications. Sealed cells require no maintenance and may be recharged up to 2000 times

 Vented cell is a type of nickel-cadmium battery that is used when large capacities and discharge rates are required They are used in aviation, rail and mass transit, backup power for telecoms, engine starting for backup turbines etc. Using vented cell NiCd batteries results in reduction in size, weight and maintenance requirements over other types of batteries. Vented cell NiCd batteries have long lives (up to 20 years or more, depending on type) and operate at extreme temperatures (from -40C to +70C)

 Nickel Cadmium is well suited for motor driven applications, such as power tools and even electric cars, because of it's high energy density. Energy density is a term used to define how much energy can be produced by a cell compared to it's weight, measured in Watt-hours per kilogram (1 Wh = 3600 Joules), so if a battery can supply large amounts of energy and is contained in a small package, it will have a desirably high energy density.

RELAY

 A Relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an electromagnet to operate a switching mechanism mechanically, but other operating principles are also used. Relays are used where it is necessary to control a circuit by a low-power signal (with complete electrical isolation between control and controlled circuits), or where several circuits must be controlled by one signal

 Some types of Relays a. b. c. d. e. f. Overload Protection Relay Solid-state Relay Contactor Relay Reed Relay Polarized Relay Machine Tool Relay

 Overload protection relay Electric motors need overcurrent protection to prevent damage from over-loading the motor, or to protect against short circuits in connecting cables or internal faults in the motor windings. One type of electric motor overload protection relay is operated by a heating element in series with the electric motor.

 The heat generated by the motor current heats a bimetallic strip or melts solder, releasing a spring to operate contacts. Where the overload relay is exposed to the same environment as the motor, a useful though crude compensation for motor ambient temperature is provided.

 Solid-State Relay A solid state relay (SSR) is a solid state electronic component that provides a similar function to an electromechanical relay but does not have any moving components, increasing long-term reliability. With early SSR's, the tradeoff came from the fact that every transistor has a small voltage drop across it. This voltage drop limited the amount of current a given SSR could handle

 Contactor Relay A Contactor is a very heavy-duty relay used for switching electric motors and lighting loads, although contactors are not generally called relays. Continuous current ratings for common contactors range from 10 amps to several hundred amps. High-current contacts are made with alloys containing silver.

The unavoidable arcing causes the contacts to oxidize; however, silver oxide is still a good conductor. Such devices are often used for motor starters Contactor relays can be extremely loud to operate, making them unfit for use where noise is a chief concern

Reed Relay A Reed Relay is a reed switch enclosed in a solenoid. The switch has a set of contacts inside an evacuated or inert gas-filled glass tube which protects the contacts against atmospheric corrosion; the contacts are made of magnetic material that makes them move under the influence of the field of the enclosing solenoid.

Reed relays can switch faster than larger relays, require only little power from the control circuit, but have low switching current and voltage ratings. In addition, the reeds can become magnetized over time, which makes them stick 'on' even when no current is present

 Polarized Relay A Polarized Relay placed the armature between the poles of a permanent magnet to increase sensitivity. Polarized relays were used in middle 20th Century telephone exchanges to detect faint pulses and correct telegraphic distortion. The poles were on screws, so a technician could first adjust them for maximum sensitivity and then apply a bias spring to set the critical current that would operate the relay.

 Machine Tool Relay A Machine Tool Relay is a type standardized for industrial control of machine tools, transfer machines, and other sequential control. They are characterized by a large number of contacts which are easily converted from normally-open to normally-closed status, easily replaceable coils, and a form factor that allows compactly installing many relays in a control panel .

 Protective Relay Protective Relay is a complex electromechanical apparatus, often with more than one coil, designed to calculate operating conditions on an electrical circuit and trip circuit breakers when a fault is detected. Unlike switching type relays with fixed and usually ill-defined operating voltage thresholds and operating times, protective relays have well-established, selectable, time/current curves.

UPS

 An Uninterruptible Power Supply, also Uninterruptible Power Source, UPS or battery/flywheel backup, is an electrical apparatus that provides emergency power to a load when the input power source, typically the utility mains, fails.

 A UPS differs from an auxiliary or emergency power system or standby generator in that it will provide instantaneous or nearinstantaneous protection from input power interruptions by means of one or more attached batteries and associated electronic circuitry for low power users, and or by means of diesel generators and flywheels for high power users.

The on-battery runtime of most uninterruptible power sources is relatively short515 minutes being typical for smaller unitsbut sufficient to allow time to bring an auxiliary power source on line, or to properly shut down the protected equipment.

 While not limited to protecting any particular type of equipment, a UPS is typically used to protect computers, data centers, telecommunication equipment or other electrical equipment where an unexpected power disruption could cause injuries, fatalities, serious business disruption or data loss.

The primary role of any UPS is to provide short-term power when the input power source fails. However, most UPS units are also capable in varying degrees of correcting common utility power problems: Power failure: defined as a total loss of input voltage. Surge: defined as a momentary or sustained increase in the main voltage. Sag: defined as a momentary or sustained reduction in input voltage.

 Spikes, defined as a brief high voltage excursion. Noise, defined as a high frequency transient or oscillation, usually injected into the line by nearby equipment. Frequency instability: defined as temporary changes in the mains frequency. Harmonic distortion: defined as a departure from the ideal sinusoidal waveform expected on the line

 The general categories of modern UPS systems are On-Line Line-Interactive Offline/Standby

 On-Line The online UPS is ideal for environments where electrical isolation is necessary or for equipment that is very sensitive to power fluctuations. Although once previously reserved for very large installations of 10 kW or more, advances in technology have now permitted it to be available as a common consumer device, supplying 500 watts or less.

 The initial cost of the online UPS may be slightly higher, but its total cost of ownership is generally lower due to longer battery life. The online UPS may be necessary when the power environment is "noisy", when utility power sags, outages and other anomalies are frequent, when protection of sensitive IT equipment loads is required, or when operation from an extended-run backup generator is necessary.

 The basic technology of the online UPS is the same as in a standby or line-interactive UPS. However it typically costs much more, due to it having a much greater current AC-to-DC battery-charger/rectifier, and with the rectifier and inverter designed to run continuously with improved cooling systems. It is called a double-conversion UPS due to the rectifier directly driving the inverter, even when powered from normal AC current.

 In an online UPS, the batteries are always connected to the inverter, so that no power transfer switches are necessary. When power loss occurs, the rectifier simply drops out of the circuit and the batteries keep the power steady and unchanged. When power is restored, the rectifier resumes carrying most of the load and begins charging the batteries, though the charging current may be limited to prevent the high-power rectifier from overheating the batteries and boiling off the electrolyte

 Line Interactive The line-interactive UPS is similar in operation to a standby UPS, but with the addition of a multi-tap variable-voltage autotransformer. This is a special type of electrical transformer that can add or subtract powered coils of wire, thereby increasing or decreasing the magnetic field and the output voltage of the transformer

 This type of UPS is able to tolerate continuous undervoltage brownouts and overvoltage surges without consuming the limited reserve battery power. It instead compensates by automatically selecting different power taps on the autotransformer. Depending on the design, changing the autotransformer tap can cause a very brief output power disruption,which may cause UPSs equipped with a power-loss alarm to "chirp" for a moment

 This has become popular even in the cheapest UPSs because it takes advantage of components already included. The main 50/60 Hz transformer used to convert between line voltage and battery voltage needs to provide two slightly different turns ratios: one to convert the battery output voltage (typically a multiple of 12 V) to line voltage, and a second one to convert the line voltage to a slightly higher battery charging voltage (such as a multiple of 14 V)

 To gain the buck/boost feature, all that is required is two separate switches so that the AC input can be connected to one of the two primary taps, while the load is connected to the other, thus using the main transformer's primary windings as an autotransformer. The battery can still be charged while "bucking" an overvoltage, but while "boosting" an undervoltage, the transformer output is too low to charge the batteries.

 Autotransformers can be engineered to cover a wide range of varying input voltages, but this requires more taps and increases complexity, and expense of the UPS

 Offline / standby The offline / standby UPS (SPS) offers only the most basic features, providing surge protection and battery backup. The protected equipment is normally connected directly to incoming utility power. When the incoming voltage falls below a predetermined level the SPS turns on its internal DC-AC inverter circuitry, which is powered from an internal storage battery.

 The SPS then mechanically switches the connected equipment on to its DC-AC inverter output. The switchover time can be as long as 25 milliseconds depending on the amount of time it takes the standby UPS to detect the lost utility voltage. The UPS will be designed to power certain equipment, such as a personal computer, without any objectionable dip or brownout to that device.

UPS

VFD

VFD

 A variable-frequency drive (VFD) is a system for controlling the rotational speed of an alternating current (AC) electric motor by controlling the frequency of the electrical power supplied to the motor. A variable frequency drive is a specific type of adjustable-speed drive. Variable-frequency drives are also known as adjustablefrequency drives (AFD), variable-speed drives (VSD),AC drives,microdrives or inverter drives

 All VFDs use their output devices (IGBTs, transistors, thyristors) only as switches, turning them only on or off. Using a linear device such as a transistor in its linear mode is impractical for a VFD drive, since the power dissipated in the drive devices would be about as much as the power delivered to the load.

 Drives can be classified as: Constant voltage Constant current Cycloconverter In a constant voltage converter, the intermediate DC link voltage remains approximately constant during each output cycle.

 In constant current drives, a large inductor is placed between the input rectifier and the output bridge, so the current delivered is nearly constant. A cycloconverter has no input rectifier or DC link and instead connects each output terminal to the appropriate input phase. The most common type of packaged VF drive is the constant-voltage type, using pulse width modulation to control both the frequency and effective voltage applied to the motor load

 A variable frequency drive system generally consists of an AC motor, a controller and an operator interface VFD Motor The motor used in a VFD system is usually a three-phase induction motor. Some types of single-phase motors can be used, but threephase motors are usually preferred.

 Various types of synchronous motors offer advantages in some situations, but induction motors are suitable for most purposes and are generally the most economical choice. Motors that are designed for fixed-speed operation are often used. Certain enhancements to the standard motor designs offer higher reliability and better VFD performance, such as MG-31 rated motors.

VFD Controller Variable frequency drive controllers are solid state electronic power conversion devices. The usual design first converts AC input power to DC intermediate power using a rectifier or converter bridge. The rectifier is usually a three-phase, fullwave-diode bridge. The DC intermediate power is then converted to quasi-sinusoidal AC power using an inverter switching circuit

 The inverter circuit is probably the most important section of the VFD, changing DC energy into three channels of AC energy that can be used by an AC motor. These units provide improved power factor, less harmonic distortion, and low sensitivity to the incoming phase sequencing than older phase controlled converter VFD's.

 Since incoming power is converted to DC, many units will accept single-phase as well as three-phase input power (acting as a phase converter as well as a speed controller); however the unit must be derated when using single phase input as only part of the rectifier bridge is carrying the connected load

VFD Operator Interface The operator interface provides a means for an operator to start and stop the motor and adjust the operating speed. Additional operator control functions might include reversing and switching between manual speed adjustment and automatic control from an external process control signal.

 The operator interface often includes an alphanumeric display and/or indication lights and meters to provide information about the operation of the drive. The keypad display can often be cableconnected and mounted a short distance from the VFD controller.

 Most are also provided with input and output (I/O) terminals for connecting pushbuttons, switches and other operator interface devices or control signals. A serial communications port is also often available to allow the VFD to be configured, adjusted, monitored and controlled using a computer

 VFD System

VFD Operation When an induction motor is connected to a full voltage supply, it draws several times (up to about 6 times) its rated current. As the load accelerates, the available torque usually drops a little and then rises to a peak while the current remains very high until the motor approaches full speed. By contrast, when a VFD starts a motor, it initially applies a low frequency and voltage to the motor.

 The starting frequency is typically 2 Hz or less. Thus starting at such a low frequency avoids the high inrush current that occurs when a motor is started by simply applying the utility (mains) voltage by turning on a switch. After the start of the VFD, the applied frequency and voltage are increased at a controlled rate or ramped up to accelerate the load without drawing excessive current.

 This starting method typically allows a motor to develop 150% of its rated torque while the VFD is drawing less than 50% of its rated current from the mains in the low speed range. A VFD can be adjusted to produce a steady 150% starting torque from standstill right up to full speed. However, cooling of the motor is usually not good in the low speed range.

 Thus running at low speeds even with rated torque for long periods is not possible due to overheating of the motor. If continuous operation with high torque is required in low speeds an external fan is usually needed. The manufacturer of the motor and/or the VFD should specify the cooling requirements for this mode of operation

LIGHTING

EMERGENCY LIGHTING

 An emergency light is a battery-backed lighting device that comes on automatically when a building experiences a power outage. Emergency lights are standard in new commercial and high occupancy residential buildings, such as college dormitories. Most building codes require that they be installed in older buildings as well.

 Modern emergency lights generally operate on a low-voltage charge to extend the life of lead-calcium batteries and use halogen incandescent with xenon filaments or lightemitting diodes (LEDs) in parabolic reflector (PAR) lamps that deliver maximum illumination for fewer watts. The heart of the system, however, remains the transfer switch that senses the absence of current and the inverter that begins changing direct current from the battery to usable alternating current for the lamps.

 Rather than the simple mechanical switches that the first lights used, modern systems, like other electronics, may be wired into an uninterruptible power supply (UPS) that contains an electronic transfer, transformer and inverter. These "hardwired" systems recharge the battery under normal conditions and transfer to battery power when the building system fails. Some emergency systems may be wired to emergency generators or include LED "pathways" along egress routes to light the way in smoky fires.

 Most emergency lighting schemes fall into one of the following categories:a) Non-maintained - The emergency light units only illuminate in the event of a mains failure. b) Maintained - The emergency light units are illuminated at all times using the same lamps for both normal and emergency operation. c) Sustained - The emergency light units are fitted with two lamps or two sets of lamps.

One of which operates on main supply, the other which operates from the battery supply in the event of mains failure. It is basically a non-maintained system with the addition of mains lamps which should be illuminated whenever the premises are occupied.

 The type of system and emergency duration is often expressed in abbreviated form as per the following examples: M3 - Maintained System, emergency duration 3 hours. NM2 - Non-maintained System, emergency duration 2 hours. S1 - Sustained System, emergency duration 1 hour

ELECTRIC LIGHT

 Electric lights are used both at night and to provide additional light during the daytime. These lights are normally powered by the electric grid, but some run on local generators, and emergency generators serve as backups in hospitals and other locations where a loss of power could be catastrophic. Battery-powered lights, usually called "flashlights" or "torches", are used for portability and as backups when the main lights fail.

 Types of electric lighting include: a) Incandescent light bulbs b) Arc lamps c) Gas discharge lamps, e.g., fluorescent lights and compact fluorescent lamps, neon lamps, flood lamps, modern photographic flashes d) Lasers e) Light-emitting diodes, including OLEDs f) Sulfur lamps

 Types of electric lighting include: a) Incandescent light bulbs b) Arc lamps c) Gas discharge lamps, e.g., fluorescent lights and compact fluorescent lamps, neon lamps, flood lamps, modern photographic flashes d) Lasers e) Light-emitting diodes, including OLEDs f) Sulfur lamps

INCANDESCENT LIGHT

 Incandescent Light Bulb makes light by heating a metal filament wire to a high temperature until it glows. The hot filament is protected from air by a glass bulb that is filled with inert gas or evacuated. The light bulb is supplied with electrical current by feed-through terminals or wires embedded in the glass

 They require no external regulating equipment and have a low manufacturing cost and work equally well on either alternating current or direct current. As a result, the incandescent lamp is widely used in household and commercial lighting, for portable lighting such as table lamps, car headlamps, and flashlights, and for decorative and advertising lighting

 Some applications of the incandescent bulb use the heat generated by the filament, such as incubators, brooding boxes for poultry, heat lights for reptile tanks, infrared heating for industrial heating and drying processes In cold weather, the heat produced by incandescent lamps is a benefit as it contributes to building heating, but in hot climates this waste heat increases the energy required by air conditioning systems

 Incandescent light bulbs are gradually being replaced in many applications by other types of electric lights, such as fluorescent lamps, compact fluorescent lamps, cold cathode fluorescent lamps (CCFL), high-intensity discharge lamps, and light-emitting diodes (LEDs). These newer technologies improve the ratio of visible light to heat generation Approximately 90% of the power consumed by an incandescent light bulb is emitted as heat, rather than as visible light.

 Incandescent light bulbs consist of a glass enclosure (the envelope, or bulb) with a filament of tungsten wire inside the bulb, through which an electric current is passed. Contact wires and a base with two (or more) conductors provide electrical connections to the filament. Incandescent light bulbs usually contain a stem or glass mount anchored to the bulb's base that allows the electrical contacts to run through the envelope without gas/air leaks.

 Small wires embedded in the stem in turn support the filament and/or its lead wires. The bulb is filled with an inert gas such as argon to reduce evaporation and prevent oxidation of the filament An electric current heats the filament. The heated filament emits light that approximates a continuous spectrum. The useful part of the emitted energy is visible light, but most energy is given off as heat in the near-infrared wavelengths Filament temperatures depend on the filament type, shape, size, and amount of current drawn

Bulb Blackening In a conventional lamp, the evaporated tungsten eventually condenses on the inner surface of the glass envelope, darkening it. For bulbs that contain a vacuum, the darkening is uniform across the entire surface of the envelope When a filling of inert gas is used, the evaporated tungsten is carried in the thermal convection currents of the gas, depositing preferentially on the uppermost part of the envelope and blackening just that portion of the envelope

HALOGEN LAMP

 Halogen lamps are usually much smaller than standard incandescents, because for successful operation a bulb temperature over 200 C is generally necessary. For this reason, most have a bulb of fused silica (quartz), but sometimes aluminosilicate glass. This is often sealed inside an additional layer of glass. The outer glass is a safety precaution, reducing UV emission and because halogen bulbs can occasionally explode during operation.

 The light output remains almost constant throughout life. The halogen lamp reduces uneven evaporation of the filament and darkening of the envelope by filling the lamp with a halogen gas at low pressure, rather than an inert gas. The halogen cycle increases the lifetime of the bulb and prevents its darkening by redepositing tungsten from the inside of the bulb back onto the filament.

 The halogen lamp can operate its filament at a higher temperature than a standard gas filled lamp of similar power without loss of operating life

COMPACT FLUORESCENT LAMP (CFL)

 Compact Fluorescent Lamp (CFL), is a type of fluorescent lamp. Many CFLs are designed to replace an incandescent lamp and can fit into most existing light fixtures formerly used for incandescents Compared to general service incandescent lamps giving the same amount of visible light, CFLs use less power and have a longer rated life

 The most important technical advance has been the replacement of electromagnetic ballasts with electronic ballasts; this has removed most of the flickering and slow starting traditionally associated with fluorescent lighting. There are two types of CFLs: a) Integrated b) Non-Integrated lamps.

 Integrated lamps combine a tube, an electronic ballast and either an Edison screw or a bayonet fitting in a single unit. These lamps allow consumers to replace incandescent lamps easily with CFLs. Integrated CFLs work well in many standard incandescent light fixtures, reducing the cost of converting to fluorescent.

 Non-integrated CFLs have the ballast permanently installed in the luminaire, and only the lamp bulb is usually changed at its end of life. Since the ballasts are placed in the light fixture they are larger and last longer compared to the integrated ones, and they don't need to be replaced when the bulb reaches its end-of-life. Non-integrated CFL housings can be both more expensive and sophisticated

CFL VS INCANDESCENT LIGHT

 The average rated life of a CFL is between 8 and 15 times that of incandescents (The lifetime of any lamp depends on many factors
including operating voltage, manufacturing defects, exposure to voltage spikes, mechanical shock, frequency of cycling on and off, lamp orientation, and ambient operating temperature, among other factors. The life of a CFL is significantly shorter if it is turned on and off frequently. In the case of a 5minute on/off cycle the lifespan of a CFL can be reduced to "close to that of incandescent light bulbs)

 CFLs produce less light later in their lives than when they are new. The light output decay is exponential, with the fastest losses being soon after the lamp is first used. By the end of their lives, CFLs can be expected to produce 7080% of their original light output. For a given light output, CFLs use 20 to 33 percent of the power of equivalent incandescent lamps.

 If a building's indoor incandescent lamps are replaced by CFLs, the heat produced due to lighting is significantly reduced. In warm climates or in office or industrial buildings where air conditioning is often required, CFLs would reduce the load on the cooling system when compared to the use of incandescent lamps, resulting in savings in electricity.

 While the purchase price of an integrated CFL is typically 3 to 10 times greater than that of an equivalent incandescent lamp, the extended lifetime and lower energy use will more than compensate for the higher initial cost. Incandescents reach full brightness a fraction of a second after being switched on. CFLs turn on within a second, but many still take time to warm up to full brightness. The light color may be slightly different immediately after being turned on.

LED (Light Emitting Diode)

 A Light-Emitting Diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source. When a light-emitting diode is forward biased (switched on), electrons are able to recombine with electron holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of photons. This effect is called electroluminescence and the color of the light (corresponding to the energy of the photon) is determined by the energy gap of the semiconductor.

 An LED is often small in area (less than 1 mm2), and integrated optical components may be used to shape its radiation pattern. LEDs present many advantages over incandescent light sources including lower energy consumption, longer lifetime, improved robustness, smaller size, faster switching, and greater durability and reliability. LEDs powerful enough for room lighting are relatively expensive and require more precise current and heat management than compact fluorescent lamp sources of comparable output.

 Light-emitting diodes are used in applications as diverse as replacements for aviation lighting, automotive lighting (particularly brake lamps, turn signals and indicators) as well as in traffic signals. The compact size, the possibility of narrow bandwidth, switching speed, and extreme reliability of LEDs has allowed new text and video displays and sensors to be developed, while their high switching rates are also useful in advanced communications technology.

 Infrared LEDs are also used in the remote control units of many commercial products including televisions, DVD players, and other domestic appliances. Solid state devices such as LEDs are subject to very limited wear and tear if operated at low currents and at low temperatures. Many of the LEDs made in the 1970s and 1980s are still in service today. Typical lifetimes quoted are 25,000 to 100,000 hours but heat and current settings can extend or shorten this time significantly.

 The most common symptom of LED (and diode laser) failure is the gradual lowering of light output and loss of efficiency. Sudden failures, although rare, can occur as well. LED performance is temperature dependent. Most manufacturers published ratings of LEDs are for an operating temperature of 25 C. LED light output actually rises at colder temperatures

 LEDs used outdoors, such as traffic signals or in-pavement signal lights, and that are utilized in climates where the temperature within the luminaire gets very hot, could result in low signal intensities or even failure

ADVANTAGES OF LED

 Efficiency: LEDs emit more light per watt than incandescent light bulbs. Their efficiency is not affected by shape and size, unlike fluorescent light bulbs or tubes. Color: LEDs can emit light of an intended color without using any color filters as traditional lighting methods need. This is more efficient and can lower initial costs Size: LEDs can be very small (smaller than 2 mm2) and are easily populated onto printed circuit boards

 On/Off time: LEDs light up very quickly. A typical red indicator LED will achieve full brightness in under a microsecond. LEDs used in communications devices can have even faster response times. Dimming: LEDs can very easily be dimmed either by pulse-width modulation or lowering the forward current. Cool light: In contrast to most light sources, LEDs radiate very little heat in the form of IR that can cause damage to sensitive objects or fabrics.

 Lifetime: LEDs can have a relatively long useful life. One report estimates 35,000 to 50,000 hours of useful life, though time to complete failure may be longer. Fluorescent tubes typically are rated at about 10,000 to 15,000 hours, depending partly on the conditions of use, and incandescent light bulbs at 1,0002,000 hours. Shock resistance: LEDs, being solid state components, are difficult to damage with external shock, unlike fluorescent and incandescent bulbs which are fragile.

DISADVANTAGES OF LED

 High initial price: LEDs are currently more expensive, price per lumen, on an initial capital cost basis, than most conventional lighting technologies. The additional expense partially stems from the relatively low lumen output and the drive circuitry and power supplies needed. Voltage sensitivity: LEDs must be supplied with the voltage above the threshold and a current below the rating. This can involve series resistors or current-regulated power supplies

 Temperature dependence: LED performance largely depends on the ambient temperature of the operating environment. Over-driving an LED in high ambient temperatures may result in overheating the LED package, eventually leading to device failure. Adequate heat sinking is needed to maintain long life. This is especially important in automotive, medical, and military uses where devices must operate over a wide range of temperatures, and need low failure rates.

 Blue hazard: There is a concern that blue LEDs and cool-white LEDs are now capable of exceeding safe limits of the so-called bluelight hazard as defined in eye safety specifications Droop: The efficiency of LEDs tends to decrease as one increases current Electrical Polarity: Unlike incandescent light bulbs, which illuminate regardless of the electrical polarity, LEDs will only light with correct electrical polarity

LAMP BASE

 There are several different types of electrical bases commonly used on lights. Edison Bases

This is the most common type of base, also known as the screw base. It's called the Edison base because it was developed by Thomas Edison and has been used on light bulbs ever since.

 Edison bases come in various dimensions, measured in millimeters in diameter. The common, standard incandescent light bulb uses an E26 base - which means a 26 mm. diameter Edison screw base. In Europe and Asia, the standard is 27 mm (ie. E27), but they are interchangeable with E26 bases.

Types of Edison Base

Screw Also known as ES and E27 The screw cap is not the safest of caps as the lamp holder has bare connection that you can touch if the bulb is removed.

Small screw Also known as SES and E14

Edison Base Most have a right-hand threading, so that it goes in when turned clockwise and comes out when turned counterclockwise, like a hardware screw. Screw bases suffer from two disadvantages. Firstly, the metal screw itself forms one of the contacts for the circuit. If the lighting system is not correctly wired, or a lamp is plugged into a non-polarized outlet, the metal screw can become energized, presenting an electric shock hazard to anyone attempting to change the bulb.

 Secondly, if the bulb unscrews in the socket for any reason, it can lose contact with the center contact and stop working until it is screwed-in tighter. This is not always a disadvantage, however: it provides a method for turning a single bulb off without using a wall or fixture switch, with appropriate precautions against the high heat of the bulb

Edison bases commonly in use are: * standard: E26 or 27 * candelabra: E11 or 12 * intermediate: E16 or 17 * mogul: E39 or 40. These are mostly used in high voltage applications.

Bayonet Cap

With its familiar push and twist action, bayonet cap (also known as BC or B22d) is used on most regular light bulbs. It is 22mm diameter and with two locating lugs. The small bayonet cap (SBC or B15d) is very similar but only 15mm across.

 A Bayonet mount or Bayonet connector is a fastening mechanism consisting of a male side with one or more pins, and a female receptor with matching L slots and spring(s) to keep the two parts locked together. To couple the two parts, the pin(s) on the male are aligned with the slot(s) on the female and the two pushed together. Once the pins reach the bottom of the slot, the two parts are turned in opposite directions to guide the pin across the bottom of the L shaped slot. .

 The spring then holds the pin in position to prevent it from backing out. To disconnect, the two parts are pushed together to overcome the spring whilst twisting slightly to reverse the locking turn. The strength of the joint relies on the shear strength of the pins and the strength of the L slots which hold the pins in place when locked. A practised user can connect them quickly and they are not subject to cross-threading.

 Although generally used for mains voltage lamps, the SBC fitting can also be found in a very small number of specialist low voltage halogen lamps. There are also many other BC variants including the 3-pin BC, B22d-3 sometimes used on Fireglow lamps but perhaps more commonly on High pressure mercury lamps for industrial applications. The BY22d is used on some low-pressure sodium (SOX) lamps.

Types of Bayonet Base

Bayonet Also known as BC and B22 The bayonet cap is not the safest of caps as the lamp holder has bare connection that you can touch if the bulb is removed.

Small bayonet Also known as SBC and B15 This is the same as the larger Bayonet cap, only smaller.

Bi-Pin Connector

A bipin or bi-pin, (sometimes referred to as 2-pin, bipin cap or bipin socket), is a standard from the IEC (International Electrotechnical Commission) for lamp fittings.

 These are used on many small incandescent light bulbs (especially halogen lamps), and on most fluorescent lights as well, where the filaments are involved in starting the tube when it is turned on. Some lamps have pins placed closer together, preventing them from being interchanged with bulbs that are too high in wattage, which may cause excessive heat and possibly fire. These are sometimes called "mini-bipin"

 Some of these, particularly in automotive lighting, have the pins bent back onto the sides of the base of the bulb, this is instead called a wedge base or socket

Types of Bi-Pin

GU bases GU bases are typically two pin bases. The most common are: * GU 5.3, which carry 12 volts and are usually found on MR16 lights. * GU10, which carries 120 volts (or 220 volts in Europe), most often seen on MR16-size lights, but using standard line voltage.