These slides incorporate figures from Digital Design Principles and Practices, third edition, by John F.

Wakerly, Copyright 2000, and are used by permission. NO permission is given to re-use or publish these figures, in either original or modified form, in printed, electronic or any other format.

Slide Set 12 Analog-digital Conversion

Digital-to-analog conversion

Vout

x0 2  x1 2  x2 2  K  xn 1 2 ! k 2n
0 1 2

n 1

reference voltage in multiplying DAC i.e., 00...0 => 0 volts; 11....1 => k volts (slightly less) k / 2n = step size

Weighted resistor network

CMOS transmission gates

How does voltage across load resistor relate to switch settings?

Thevenin equivalent

Veq ! V VCC ! V ' V ! ( I 3  I 2  I1  I 0 )(16 R )

What are the four source currents?

x3 (V  V ) (1  x3 )V x3V  V  ! 2 2 2 x (V ' V ) (1  x2 )V x2V ' V  ! I2 ! 2 4R 4R 4R x1 (V ' V ) (1  x1 )V x1V ' V  ! I1 ! 8R 8R 8R x0 (V ' V ) (1  x0 )V x0V '  V  ! I0 ! 16 R 16 R 16 R I3 !

Short circuit current?

V ' V ! (8 x3  4 x2  2 x1  x0 ) 16

x3V ' x2V ' x1V ' x0V ' I SC !    2R 4R 8 R 16 R V' (8 x3  4 x2  2 x1  x0 ) I SC ! 16 R Req ! R

V' V ! (8 x3  4 x2  2 x1  x0 ) 16 Req ! R

Vout

n 1 i xi 2 V RL i !0 RL ! R  R Veq ! R  R 2n L L

Norton equivalent circuit

Rnorton ! Rthevenin ! R I norton ! Vthevenin / R

For current-based analysis Thevenin is for voltage-based analysis Replaces linear circuit with current generator and parallel resistance linear circuit is one with only resistances and voltage sources Current source is short-circuit current Equivalent resistance is open-circuit voltage divided by short-circuit current Equivalent resistance can be found by shorting all voltage sources

Norton analysis of weighted resistor network

Equivalent resistance set voltage sources to zero:

1 Req ! !R 1 1 1 1 1     16 R 16 R 8R 4 R 2 R
Have short-circuit current from Thevenin analysis

Norton equivalent circuit:

I SC

V' ! (8 x3  4 x2  2 x1  x0 ) 16 R

Current divides proportionally output voltage is then constant times digital input

(1  p ) R ! pRLoad R p! R  RLoad Vout Vout Vref p ! 4 R2 xi 2 RLoad

i

Vref RLoad ! RLoad  R

xi 2i n 2

1-p p

Some problems with this weighted resistor solution Resistor values span a wide range
n-bit DAC ==> resistors from 2R to 2nR 8-bit DAC ==> 2R to 512R, e.g., 2K to 512K Difficult to fabricate wide ranges of resistance in semiconductor processes.

Different resistors in the network have different accuracy requirements.

5% resistance change at MSB has 2.5% effect 5% resistance change at LSB (8-bit) has .02% effect MSB of 16-bit DAC (as in CD player) would require accuracy of one part in 215 (.003%) to have less than one step-size error.

Solution: Ladder Network

Claim: same Norton and Thevenin equivalents Uses only two resistor values, R and 2R

Why same Thevenin and Norton equivalents?

y y

Thevenin?

2 R x0Vre Veq ! x0Vre ! 2 2R  2R x0Vre I ! 2R Req ! R

y y

open-circuit voltage?

x0Vref 2

equivalent resistance? set voltage sources to zero

x0Vre Veq ! 2

xV x1Vre  0 re 2  (2 R ) 4R

xV xV Veq ! 1 re  0 re 2 4

Req !

1 1 1  2R 2R

!R

and so on...

After reducing through most significant bit (bit 3 in this case):

RLoad

x3Vref x2Vref x1Vref x0Vref    2 4 8 16

V out

R L o a d V re f ! (8 x 3  4 x 2  2 x 1  x 0 ) R Load  R 1 6 R L o a dV re f ! R Load  R

V out

xi 2 i
2n
same equation as weighted resistor network but uses only two resistor sizes: R and 2R

Analog-to-digital conversion
Analog comparator = 1-bit A-to-D

Combinational A-to-D

Fastest conversion time

used in digital scopes, video sampling, etc.

Good for only a few bits of resolution

too much hardware

Alternative: sequential A-to-D

Idea: Use one comparator, repetitively, and a DAC to try different digital values until correct result is found.

COMP (logic signal)

initialize to zero increment until comp becomes zero

RESULT

Counter-ramp A-to-D
Initialize result register to 0 Keep incrementing result register until the DAC produces a voltage greater than Vin. Maximum of 2n steps for n-bit conversion. ABEL code:
state IDLE: if START then LOOK with result := 0; else IDLE with result := result; state LOOK: if (COMP == 1) then DONE with result := result; else if (result == MAX) then DONE with result := result; else LOOK with result := result + 1; state DONE: if START then DONE with result := result; else IDLE with result := result;

Successive-approximation A-to-D
Like a binary search in software -- n steps to search 2n possible results (n-bit result). First step -- determine MSB of result:
Set result to 10000. Is COMP 1 or 0? COMP=1 ==> MSB = 1; else MSB = 0.

Second step -- determine next lower bit:

Set result to x1000. Is COMP 1 or 0? (x = bit found at previous step). COMP=1 ==> next lower bit =1; else 0.

And so on, for n steps through the LSB

Other clever ideas, e.g., Apple II A-to-D for joystick

Converts analog position into numeric value. Idea: Use a potentiometer whose resistance is a function of position (joystick). Combine the resistance with a capacitance and measure the RC time constant Use a program loop.

time proportional to joystick position