FINAL CONTROL ELEMENT

FINAL CONTROL ELEMENT

The final control element adjust the amount of energy/mass goes into or out from process as commanded by the controller The common energy source of final control elements are:
Electric Pneumatic Hydraulic

ELECTRIC FINAL CONTROL ELEMENT

Electric current/voltage Solenoid Stepping Motor DC Motor AC Motor

CHANGING CURRENT/VOLTAGE
Current or voltage can be easily changed to adjust the flow of energy goes into the process e.g. in heating process or in speed control Heater elements are often used as device to keep the temperature above the ambient temperature. Energy supplied by the heater element is W = i2rt (i=current, r=resistance, t=time) Motor is often used as device to control the speed

CHANGING CURRENT/VOLTAGE
Using
Potentiometer Amplifier Ward Leonard system Switch (on-off action)

Changing Current/Voltage Using Rheostat

Rheostat Heater

I = V/(R1+R2) Power at rheostat P1 =I2R1

R1 V R2 I

Power at heater P2 =I2R2 Disadvantage loss of power at rheostat

Example of Heating elements

Changing Current/Voltage Using Amplifier

Potentiometer

V+

Heater

R1 V R2
amplifier

V Disadvantage loss of power at potentiometer (very small) and at Amplifier

Changing Current/Voltage Using Ward Leonard System

Introduced by Harry Ward Leonard in 1891 Use a motor to rotate a generator at constant speed The output of generator voltage is adjusted by changing the excitation voltage Small change in excitation voltage cause large change in generator voltage Able to produce wide range of voltage (0 to 3000V) Ward Leonard system is popular system to control the speed of big DC motor until 1980s Now a days semi conductors switches replaces this system

Changing Current/Voltage Using Ward Leonard System

excitation voltage

MOTOR

GENERATOR

Changing Current/Voltage Using Switch

The switch is closed and opened repeatedly No power loss at switch
Switch VL V V VL
Switch closed

LOAD

t
Switch opened

DUTY CYCLE
VL V
T is period time typical in millisecond order (fix) Ton is switch on time (adjustable) Toff is switch off time

Ton T

Toff

Duty Cycle is: (Ton /T) 100%

Of course we can not use mechanical switches to carry on this task, electronic switches to be used instead. E.g. Transistor, Thyristor, or IGBT This methods is often called as Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)

SOLENOID
When the coil is energized the core will be pulled in
core

coil SOLENOID coil

core

SOLENOID
When the coil is energized the core will be pulled in

SIMULATE

SOLENOID
When the coil is energized the core will be pulled in

SIMULATE

SOLENOID

Tubular solenoid

Open frame solenoid

Rotary solenoid

Solenoid

Solenoid Usage
pushing buttons, hitting keys on a piano, Open closed Valve, Heavy duty contactor jumping robots etc

STEPPING MOTOR

The top electromagnet (1) is turned on, attracting the nearest teeth of a gear-shaped iron rotor. With the teeth aligned to electromagnet 1, they will be slightly offset from electromagnet

The top electromagnet (1) is turned off, and the right electromagnet (2) is energized, pulling the nearest teeth slightly to the right. This results in a rotation of 3.6 in this example.

STEPPING MOTOR

The bottom electromagnet (3) is energized; another 3.6 rotation occurs.

The left electromagnet (4) is enabled, rotating again by 3.6.

When the top electromagnet (1) is again enabled, the teeth in the sprocket will have rotated by one tooth position; since there are 25 teeth, it will take 100 steps to make a full rotation in this example.

STEPPING MOTOR
Practical stepping motor can be controlled for full step and half step. Common typical step size is 1.8o for full step and 0.90 for half step Full step is accomplished by energizing 2 adjacent electromagnet simultaneously. Half step is accomplished by energizing 1 electromagnet at a time.

Stepping motor

DC Motor

The brush

DC Motor

Practical DC Motors
Every DC motor has six basic parts axle, rotor (a.k.a., armature), stator, commutator, field magnet(s),
For a small motor the magnets is made from permanent magnet

and brushes.

2 pole motor

Animate

2 pole motor

Animate

2 pole motor

Animate

2 pole motor

Animate

2 pole motor

Animate

2 pole motor

Animate

2 pole motor

Animate

2 pole motor

Animate

2 pole motor

continue Animate

3 pole DC motors
1 The coil for each poles are connected serially. The commutator consist of 3 sector, consequently one coil will be fully energized and the others will be partially energized.

3 pole DC motors
The commutator and the coil is arranged in such a way that the polarity of each pole is as shown

animate

next

3 pole DC motors
The commutator and the coil is arranged in such a way that the polarity of each pole is as shown

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next

3 pole DC motors
The commutator and the coil is arranged in such a way that the polarity of each pole is as shown

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next

3 pole DC motors
The commutator and the coil is arranged in such a way that the polarity of each pole is as shown

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next

DC motors
As the rotor is rotating, back emf (Ea) will be produced, the faster the rotor turn the higher Ea and the smaller Ia. The starting current of motors will be much higher then the rating current.
Ia

Ea

motor

DC motors
Field winding Armature winding

For big motors the magnet is made from coil and core. The current flowing in the coil is called If and the current flowing in the armature is called Ia. The armature winding and the field winding are connected to a common power supply The armature winding and the field winding are often connected in series, parallel, or compound. The torque characteristic will be different for each connection. The figure shows a parallel connection

SERIES DC MOTOR

Field and armature winding are series connected, this type of motor is called series DC motor

DC motors

Field and armature winding are parallel connected, this type of motor is called shunt DC motor

DC MOTOR

Compound DC motor is DC motor having 2 field winding the first one is connected parallel to the armature winding and the other is connected series

DC MOTOR
Torque: T = KIa
K is a constant magnetic flux Ia is armature current

Magnetic flux is constant if it is from permanent magnet It is depend on the If if it is produced by current

DC MOTOR TORQUE-SPEED CURVE

Torque: T = KIa

SERIES DC MOTOR TORQUESPEED CURVE

Torque: T = KIa T= KIa2

SHUNT DC MOTOR TORQUESPEED CURVE

Torque: T = KIa

COMPOUND DC MOTOR TORQUE-SPEED CURVE

SYNCHRONOUS AC MOTOR
N The rotating field. When alternating current is applied to the field coil the magnetic field will also alternating. Therefore the permanent magnet will rotate

S o -311 311

SYNCHRONOUS AC MOTOR
N

The rotating field. When alternating current is applied to the field coil the magnetic field will also alternating. Therefore the permanent magnet will rotate o -311 311

SYNCHRONOUS AC MOTOR
The rotating field. When alternating current is applied to the field coil the magnetic field will also alternating. Therefore the permanent magnet will rotate o -311 311
N

SYNCHRONOUS AC MOTOR
The rotating field. When alternating current is applied to the field coil the magnetic field will also alternating. Therefore the permanent magnet will rotate

S
o -311 311

SYNCHRONOUS AC MOTOR
S

The rotating field. When alternating current is applied to the field coil the magnetic field will also alternating. Therefore the permanent magnet will rotate

o -311 311

SYNCHRONOUS AC MOTOR
S

The rotating field. When alternating current is applied to the field coil the magnetic field will also alternating. Therefore the permanent magnet will rotate

o -311 311

SYNCHRONOUS AC MOTOR
S
o -311 311

This motor has 2 poles If the frequency of the current is f hertz (cycle/s) then the rpm n = f rps n = (120f)/p rpm Where p is the number of the poles

SYNCHRONOUS AC MOTOR
S

4 pole motor

THREE PHASE SYNCHRONOUS AC MOTOR

R S T
S

R S T
N

4 pole 3 motor

SYNCHRONOUS AC MOTOR

SYNCHRONOUS AC MOTOR USING EXTERNAL EXITER

R S T

The magnetic flux of permanent magnet is low for a bigger motor we have to use externally exited magnetic field

ASYNCHRONOUS AC MOTOR
When instead of exited, the rotor coil is shorted an induced current will be generated and the rotor will be magnetized and start to turn. The faster the speed the smaller the induced current and finally the current will cease at synchronous speed and so does the rotation This motor will turn at speed less the its synchronous rotation that is why it called asynchronous motor This motor is also called induction motor

Iinduced

Calculating Motor Speed

A squirrel cage induction motor is a constant speed device. It cannot operate for any length of time at speeds below those shown on the nameplate without danger of burning out. To Calculate the speed of a induction motor, apply this formula: Srpm = 120 x F P
Srpm = synchronous revolutions per minute. 120 = constant F = supply frequency (in cycles/sec) P = number of motor winding poles

Example: What is the synchronous of a motor having 4 poles connected to a 60 hz power supply? Srpm = 120 x F P Srpm = 120 x 60 4 Srpm = 7200 4 Srpm = 1800 rpm

Calculating Braking Torque

Full-load motor torque is calculated to determine the required braking torque of a motor. To Determine braking torque of a motor, apply this formula: T = 5252 x HP rpm T = full-load motor torque (in lb-ft) 5252 = constant (33,000 divided by 3.14 x 2 = 5252) HP = motor horsepower rpm = speed of motor shaft Example: What is the braking torque of a 60 HP, 240V motor rotating at 1725 rpm? T = 5252 x HP rpm T = 5252 x 60 1725 T = 315,120 1725 T = 182.7 lb-ft

Calculating Work
Work is applying a force over a distance. Force is any cause that changes the position, motion, direction, or shape of an object. Work is done when a force overcomes a resistance. Resistance is any force that tends to hinder the movement of an object.If an applied force does not cause motion the no work is produced. To calculate the amount of work produced, apply this formula: W=FxD W = work (in lb-ft) F = force (in lb) D = distance (in ft) Example: How much work is required to carry a 25 lb bag of groceries vertically from street level to the 4th floor of a building 30' above street level? W=FxD W = 25 x 30 W = 750 -lb

Pneumatic Actuator

Pneumatic Actuator

Reverse-Acting Actuator

I/P Converter
A "current to pressure" converter (I/P) converts an analog signal (4-20 mA) to a proportional linear pneumatic output (315 psig). Its purpose is to translate the analog output from a control system into a precise, repeatable pressure value to control pneumatic actuators/operators, pneumatic valves, dampers, vanes, etc.

Air supply 30 psi Current 4 to 20 mA

I/P

Pneumatic 3 to 15 psi Supplied to actuator

Sample of I/P Converter

Generation and distribution of pneumatic pressure

Compressor is needed for pneumatic system
PC PS Regulator valve Tank compressor 100 psi 30 psi To I/P

Hydraulic Actuator

Hydraulic Actuator

Hydraulic Actuator

Advantage
ELECTRIC PNEUMATIC HYDRAULIC Large capacity Locking capability Self lubricating Easy to control Smooth operation Accurate position Inexpensive Suit to advance control Fast No tubing No pollution No return line No stall damage

Disadvantage
Low speed Expensive Unsafe Need brake overheating Low accuracy Noise pollution Difficult speed control Need infrastructure Expensive Leakage problems Difficult speed control Need return line Need infrastructure