Causal Studies

Causal studies are those where the researcher tests the hypotheses of causal relationship between variables. Such studies require procedures that will not only reduces the bias and increase reliability, but will permit drawing inferences.

Experimentation
It is a controlled method in which the value of one or more independent variables is changed to assess its causal effect on one or more dependent variables.

Types of Experimentation
Artificial Environmental settings Natural Environmental settings

Characteristics of true experimental design

Relationship between variables. Use of control groups Random sampling. A research investigation in which conditions are controlled One independent variable is manipulated (sometimes more than one) Its effect on a dependent variable is measured To test a hypothesis

Important Terms:

Experimental Treatment An alternative manipulations of the independent variable being investigated Control Group(s) The independent variable is not manipulated and is often not present. Experimental group:

Test Units Subjects or entities whose response to the experimental treatment are measured or observed.

Validity is the best available approximation to the truth of a given proposition, inference or conclusion. In other words, when we make some claim, does the evidence support our conclusions.

iv. Internal Validity - The ability of an experiment to answer the question whether the experimental treatment was the sole cause of changes in a dependent variable. v. External Validity -- A determination of whether the cause and effect relationships found in the experiment can be generalized.

Reliability is the consistency of your measurement, or the degree to which an instrument measures the same way each time it is used under the same condition with the same subjects. In short, it is the repeatability of your measurement. A measure is considered reliable if a person's score on the same test given twice is similar. It is important to remember that reliability is not measured, it is estimated. External validity refers to our ability to generalize the results of our study to other

Extraneous variables -- variables, other than the independent variables, that influence the response of the test units

Classification of Extraneous Variables Type of Extraneous Variable Example History - Specific events in the environment between the Before and After measurement that are beyond the experimenters control Maturation - Subjects change during the course of the experiment Testing - The Before-measure alerts or sensitizes subject to nature of experiment or second measure. A major employer closes its plant in test market area

Subjects become tired Questionnaire about the traditional role of women triggers enhanced awareness of women in an experiment.

Contd.

Factors Influencing Internal Validity New questions are interpreted differently from earlier questions. Control group and experimental group is self-selected group based on preferences

Instrument - Changes in instrument result in response bias. Measuring instruments are modified during the course of action. Selection - Sample selection error because of differential selection of respondents for comparison groups.

Mortality - Sample attrition; some subjects withdraw from experiment.

Subjects in one group of a hair dying study move to Florida

 Statistical regression (SR) -- an extraneous

variable that occurs when testing its with extreme scores move closer to the average score during the course of the experiment. The phenomenon of regression shows that there is a natural tendency for individuals who score on the outer extremes (either very high or very low) of the grade continuum, when retested will score closer to the mean. For example, Ritu, a low scorer on the high school achievement exam upon retaking the exam will improve her scores even without the intervention of any study program due to the regression effect.

Classification of Experimental Designs

Pre-experimental designs --On the surface, the design below appears to be an adequate design. The subjects are pretested, exposed a treatment, and then posttested. It would seem that any differences between the pretest measures and posttest measures would be due to the progam treatment. The One-Group Pretest-Posttest Design Experimental Group: O X O

However, there are serious weaknesses in this design. With the exceptions of selection and morality threat to internal validity, which are not factors due to the lack of a control group, this design is subject to other threats to internal validity. Pre-experimental designs include: -case study design -one group pre-test/post-test design -static group comparison design (crosssectional study)

 True experimental designs -- experimental designs distinguished by the fact that the researcher can randomly assigned test units to experimental groups and also randomly assigned treatments to experimental groups. e.g. pretest-posttest control group design, post test only control group design and Solomon Four group design.

 Quasi-experimental designs -- designs that apply part of the procedures of true experimentation but lack full experimental control e.g. time series and multiple time series designs

 Statistical design -- designs that allow for the statistical control and analysis of external variables. e.g. Randomized Blocks, Latin Square, Factorial.

What are the Different Basic Experimental Designs?

Symbols used in describing the various experimental designs: X- exposure of a group to an experimental treatment O- Observation or measurement of the dependent variable. If more than one observation or measurement is taken, O1, O2, O3 etc. will be used. R symbolizes that individuals selected as subjects for the experiment are randomly assigned to the experimental groups.

 One-shot case study -- a pre-experimental design in which a single group of test units is exposed to treatment X, and then a single measurement on the dependent variable is taken. X

O1

 One Group Pretest-Posttest

O1 X

O2

Treatment Effect= O2 O1
The design in which the subjects in experiment group are measured before and after the treatment is introduced but in which there is no control group.

 Static Group Design Experimental Group X

Control Group

O1
O2

The only after design in which subjects in the experimental group are measured after being exposed to the experimental treatment, and the control group is measured without having being exposed to the experimental treatment.

True Experimental Designs: Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design

EG: R CG: R 01 03 X 02 04

Test units are randomly assigned to either the experimental or the control group. A pretreatment measure is taken on each group. The treatment effect (TE) is measured as:(02 - 01) (04 - 03). Selection bias is eliminated by randomization.

Posttest-Only Control Group Design

EG : R X 01 CG : R 02 The treatment effect is obtained by TE = 01 - 02 Except for pre-measurement, the implementation of this design is very similar to that of the pretestposttest control group design.

Solomon Four Group Design

Experimental Group 1: Control Group 1: Experimental Group 2: Control Group 2: R O1 X O2 R O3 O4 R X O5 R O6

Combining the before- after with control group design and the after-only With control group design, the design is known as Solomon Four Group Design. The design provides means for controlling the testing effect, as well as other sources of extraneous variation.

Quasi-Experimental Designs: Time Series Design

01 02 03 04 05 X 06 07 08 09 010

There is no randomization of test units to treatments. The timing of treatment presentation, as well as which test units are exposed to the treatment, may not be within the researcher's control.

Multiple Time Series Design

EG : 01 02 03 04 05 X 06 07 08 09 010 CG : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 010

If the control group is carefully selected, this design can be an improvement over the simple time series experiment. Can test the treatment effect twice: against the pretreatment measurements in the experimental group and against the control group.

Limitations of Experimentation
Experiments can be time consuming, particularly if the researcher is interested in measuring the long-term effects. Experiments are often expensive. The requirements of experimental group, control group, and multiple measurements significantly add to the cost of research. Experiments can be difficult to administer. It may be impossible to control for the effects of the extraneous variables, particularly in a field environment. Competitors may deliberately contaminate the results of a field experiment.