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Objectives:
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Learn about the brief historical background on the concepts of the atomic theory Review on the atomic structure, atomic number, mass number and the electronic arrangements of atoms. Learn on the structure of the atomic nucleus
The atom is composed of tiny, dense positive nucleus and clouds of negative electrons
Atomic Theories
Democritus- gave the name atomos-indivisible Antoine Lavoisier- made Chemistry a science; proposed Law of Conservation of Matter John Dalton- proponent of Daltons Atomic Theories
1. Elements consist of indivisible particles called atoms. 2.Atoms of the same elements are identical. 3.Atoms can neither be created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction. 4.Atoms of different elements are different and have different masses. 5. Atoms chemically combine in definite whole number proportions to form compounds.
Neils Bohr- proposed quantum theory 1. Electrons could only reside in certain energy level 2. Primary shells, labeled as 1,2,3,4 3. Subshells as s(1), p(3), d(5), f(7)
Atoms are complex and not the simplest particles. Not all atoms of the same elements are alike because some elements called Isotopes do not have the same mass.
Subatomic Particle y A very small particle that is a building block for atoms.
Three Types of Subatomic Particles: y The atom contains: Electrons found outside the nucleus; negative electrical charge; smallest mass. Protons found in the nucleus; positive charge equal in magnitude to the electrons negative charge Neutrons found in the nucleus; no charge; virtually same mass as a proton
Quarks Theory
What is the world made of?
In the ancient times, people believed and organized everything with the four fundamental elements: Fire, Air, Earth and Water.
By the word "fundamental, we mean objects that are simple and structureless -- not made of anything smaller.
Physicists have discovered that protons and neutrons are composed of even smaller particles called quarks.
Electrons are in constant motion around the nucleus, protons and neutrons jiggle within the nucleus, and quarks jiggle within the protons and neutrons.
The nucleus is 10,000 times smaller than the atom The electrons and quarks are 100 million times smaller than the atom
This model explains what the world is and what holds it together
Trivia Question
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For how many years have physicists known that there were more than just protons, neutrons, electrons, and photons? 5? 25? 60? 100?
Answer: 60 years! In the 1930's physicists found muons, but hundreds more were found with high energy accelerators in the 1960's and 1970's.
1953-1970s
Quarks
There are six quarks in three pairs: up/down, charm/strange, and top/bottom Quarks have the unusual characteristic of having a fractional electric charge Quarks also carry another type of charge called color charge
With the hadrons given above, which one is the baryon? The meson?
Baryons
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Protons are baryons made up of two up quarks and one down quark (uud) Neutrons are also baryons made up of one up quark and two down quarks (udd)
Mesons
These particles are very unstable because they are composed of a particle and an antiparticle
Leptons
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There are six leptons, three of which have electrical charge and three of which do not. The best known lepton is the electron (e-). The other two charged leptons are the muon() and the tau( )
The other leptons are the three types of neutrinos ( ). They have no electrical charge, very little mass, and they are very hard to find.
Neutrinos
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a type of lepton no electrical or strong charge are produced in a variety of interactions, especially in particle decays rarely interact with matter Their tiny mass but huge numbers may contribute to total mass of the universe and affect its expansion
The most fundamental matter particles are the six quarks and the six leptons. We never find isolated quarks, we only observe them in composite particles called hadrons. And there is an antimatter particle for every matter particle.
The nucleus is: Small compared with the overall size of the atom. Extremely dense; accounts for almost all of the atoms mass. Positively charged center of an atom
An atom as a whole is electrically neutral (no net electrical charge) # of Protons = # of Electrons
Atomic Number & Mass Number Atomic Number (Z) # of protons in the nucleus of an atom Mass Number (A) sum of the # of protons and the # of neutrons in the nucleus of an atom
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Na 11
Exercises
1.
What is the mass number of an atom containing: 58 protons, 58 electrons and 78 neutrons 17 protons, 17 electrons and 20 neutrons 15 protons, 15 electrons and 16 neutrons 86 protons, 86 electrons and 136 neutrons
a) b) c) d)
2. Name the element given in problem 1a and 1b and write the symbols for their atomic nuclei.
Element
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A pure substance in which all atoms present have the same atomic number. All atoms with the same atomic number have the same chemical properties and are atoms of the same element.
Isotopes
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y y y
Atoms of an element that have the same number of protons and the same number of electrons but different numbers of neutrons. Show almost identical chemical properties; chemistry of atom is due to its electrons. Physical properties are often slightly different because they have different masses. In nature most elements contain mixtures of isotopes.
23
Na 11
24
Na
11
Exercise
Exercises
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How many neutrons are in each isotope of Oxygen? Write the symbol of each isotope. a) Oxygen-16 b) Oxygen-17 c) Oxygen-18
Two iodine isotopes are used in medical treatments: iodine-125 and iodine-131. How many neutrons are in each isotope? Write the symbol for each isotope.
Atomic Masses
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Elements occur in nature as mixtures of isotopes Carbon = 98.89% 12C 1.11% 13C <0.01% 14C
Calculated average mass for the isotopes of an 12 element expressed on a scale where 6 C serves as the reference point.
Exercise
1.
An element consists of 62.60% of an isotope with mass 186.956 amu and 37.40% of an isotope with mass 184.953 amu.
2. Magnesium occurs in nature in 3 isotopic forms: Mg-24, (78.70% abundance), Mg-25 (10.13% abundance) and Mg-26 (11.17% abundance).Their relative masses are 23.985, 24.986 and 25.983 amu, respectively. Calculate the atomic mass of Magnesium.
Atomic Subshells
s subshell
p subshell
d subshell
f subshell
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Seven sets of four pear-shaped lobes around the different planes of the atom. This is extremely difficult to draw.
Electron subshells are filled in order of increasing energy. Electrons occupy the orbitals of a subshell such that each orbital acquires one electron before any orbital acquires a second electron. All electrons in such singly occupied orbitals must have the same spin. No more than two electrons may exist in a given orbital and then only if they have opposite spins.
2.
3.
Electron Configurations
Electron Configurations
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A statement of how many electrons an atom has in each of its electron subshells. An oxygen atom has an electron arrangement of two electrons in the 1s subshell, two electrons in the 2s subshell, and four electrons in the 2p subshell.
Oxygen: 1s22s22p4
Orbital Diagrams
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A notation that shows how many electrons an atom has in each of its occupied electron orbitals.
2p
Exercise
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a)
S 1s22s22p63s23p4
b)
Ba 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p65s24d105p66s2
Determine the electron configuration and orbital diagram of the following elements:
The electron arrangement in the outermost shell is the same for elements in the same group. This is why elements in the same group have similar chemical properties.
Group 1A very reactive
Distinguishing Electron
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Last electron added to the electron configuration for an element when electron subshells are filled in order of increasing energy. This last electron is the one that causes an elements electron configuration to differ from that of an element immediately preceding it in the periodic table.
Radioactivity
Discovery of Radioactivity
1896 by French Physicist Henri Becquerel y Exposure of uranium salt to sunlight until they phosphoresced y Phosphorescing salts emit some type of radiation even after the phosphorescence has ceased y Awarded in 1903 Nobel Prize for Physics
Radioactivity
4 major types: y Alpha particle (helium nuclei); has 2 protons & 2 neutrons; each has an atomic number of 2 and charge of +2 y Beta particle (electron); charge of -1 y Gamma rays (high-energy photons); no mass or charge y Positrons (positively charged electrons) *Each type behaves differently when it passes between electrically charged plates *radioactivity comes from the atomic nuclei and not from the electron cloud
Wavelength y Greek letter lambda ( ) y Distance from one wave crest to the next Frequency y Greek letter nu (v) y Number of crests that pass a given point in one second *the lower the frequency, the longer the wavelength; the shorter the frequency, the longer the wavelength *the higher the frequency, the higher the energy
Radioactive & stable nuclei >300 naturally occurring isotopes; 264 of these are stable (nuclei does not give off radioactivity); rest are radioactive isotopes >1000 artificial isotopes all of which are radioactive
Stable nuclei are isotopes in which there are equal number of protons and neutrons *in lighter elements- # of protons & neutrons are approximately equal ( C-12, O-16) *in heavier elements- stability requires more neutrons than protons ( Pb-206)
If there is imbalance between the proton-to-neutron ratio (either too few or too many neutrons), a nucleus will undergo nuclear reaction to make the ratio favorable or the nucleus more stable Beta Emission Process by which a nucleus emits an electron or a beta particle after it converted its excess neutrons into protons and electrons to become stable Ex: P-32 S-32 + electron Transmutation is the changing of one element into another every time an element gives off a beta particle
B. y
y y
C. y y
Alpha Emission Loss of alpha particle in heavy elements is an important stabilization process Ex: U-238 Th- 234 + Helium
*as a general rule: the new nucleus always has a mass number four units lower and an atomic number two units lower than the original nucleus y Ex: Polonium-218 is an alpha emitter. Write an equation for this nuclear reaction, and identify the product.
Positron Emission y particle that has the same mass as an electron but a charge of +1 rather than -1 y no appreciable mass; rarer than alpha and beta emission *nucleus is transmuted into another nucleus with the same mass number but an atomic number that is one unit less y Ex: C-11 B-11 + electron(+1)
D. y
Ex: N-13 is a positron emitter. Write an equation for this nuclear reaction and identify the product. Ex: As-74 is a positron emitter used in locating brain tumors. Write an equation for this nuclear reaction and identify the product.
E. y y
Gamma Emission often accompanies alpha and beta emissions Ex: B*-11 B-11 + y
Electron Capture y extranuclear electron is captured by the nucleus and inside reacts with a proton to form a neutron *atomic number of the element is reduced by 1, but the mass number is unchanged y Ex: Be-7 + electron (-1) Li-7 y Ex: Chromium-51 decays by electron capture & gamma emission. Write an equation for this nuclear decay and identify the product.
F.
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Ex: If 10 mg of Iodine-131 is administered to a patient, much is left in the body after 32 days? (t of I-131 is 8 days)
Ex: Barium-122 has a half-life of 2 minutes. Suppose you obtain a sample weighing 10 g. It takes 10 minutes to set up the experiment in which barium-122 will be used. How many grams of barium-122 will be left when you begin the experiment?
Alpha particles- most massive & most highly charged; least penetrating; can be stopped by several sheets of paper, ordinary clothing and skin Beta particles- have less mass & lower charge than alpha particles; greater penetrating power; can penetrate several millimeters of bone Gamma particles- no mass nor charge; most penetrating of the 3 types of radiation; can pass completely through the body
Nuclear Fusion
combining of 2 lighter nuclei to form a heavier nucleus Ex: fusion of 2 hydrogen nuclei to form a helium nucleus with the release of a very large amount of energy H-2 + (Deuterium) H-3 (Tritium) He + n + energy
Nuclear Fission
splitting of a heavier nucleus into 2 or more smaller nuclei releases large amount of energy which can be controlled (nuclear reactors) or uncontrolled (nuclear weapons) first observed in the 1930s when scientists in Germany tried to produce transuranium element by bombarding uranium-235 with neutrons; however had Ba, Kr, neutron, gamma particle and atomic energy as its products used in nuclear power plant