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UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION

Networking

Network
... communication system for connecting end-systems End-systems are PCs, workstations dedicated computers network components

Network Media
This is the channel over which a message travels

Network Types
Local Area Networks (LANs)
A network serving a home, building or campus is considered a Local Area Network (LAN)

Network Types
Wide Area Networks (WANs)
LANs separated by geographic distance are connected by a network known as a Wide Area Network (WAN)

Network Types
The Internet
The internet is defined as a global mesh of interconnected networks

Communication Architecture
Strategy for connecting host computers and other communicating equipment. Defines necessary elements for data communication between devices. A communication architecture, therefore, defines a standard for the communicating hosts. A programmer formats data in a manner defined by the communication architecture and passes it on to the communication software. Separating communication functions adds flexibility, for example, we do not need to modify the entire host software to include more communication devices.

Layer Architecture
Layer architecture simplifies the network design. It is easy to debug network applications in a layered architecture network. The network management is easier due to the layered architecture. Network layers follow a set of rules, called protocol. The protocol defines the format of the data being exchanged, and the control and timing for the handshake between layers.

Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Model


International standard organization (ISO) established a committee in 1977 to develop an architecture for computer communication. Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model is the result of this effort. In 1984, the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model was approved as an international standard for communications architecture. Term open denotes the ability to connect any two systems which conform to the reference model and associated standards.

OSI MODEL

"All people seem to need data processing

The beginning letter of each word corresponds to a layer: o AllApplication layer o PeoplePresentation layer o SeemSession layer o ToTransport layer o NeedNetwork layer o DataData link layer ProcessingPhysical layer

OSI Reference Model


The OSI model is now considered the primary Architectural model for inter-computer communications. The OSI model describes how information or data makes its way from application programmes (such as spreadsheets) through a network medium (such as wire) to another application programme located on another network. The OSI reference model divides the problem of moving information between computers over a network medium into SEVEN smaller and more manageable problems . This separation into smaller more manageable functions is known as layering.

OSI: A Layered Network Model


The process of breaking up the functions or tasks of networking into layers reduces complexity. Each layer provides a service to the layer above it in the protocol specification. Each layer communicates with the same layers software or hardware on other computers. The lower 4 layers (transport, network, data link and physical Layers 4, 3, 2, and 1) are concerned with the flow of data from end to end through the network. The upper four layers of the OSI model (application, presentation and sessionLayers 7, 6 and 5) are orientated more toward services to the applications. Data is Encapsulated with the necessary protocol information as it moves down the layers before network transit.

OSI MODEL

OSI layers

An exchange using the OSI model

OSI Reference Model: 7 Layers

The Physical Layer


Responsibility:
transmission of raw bits over a communication channel.

Issues:
mechanical and electrical interfaces time per bit distances

The Data Link Layer Data Link Control


Responsibility:
provide an error-free communication link

Issues:
framing (dividing data into chunks)
header & trailer bits

addressing

10110110101

01100010011

10110000001

The Data Link Layer The MAC sublayer


Medium Access Control - needed by mutiaccess networks. MAC provides DLC with virtual wires on multiaccess networks.

The Network Layer


Responsibilities:
path selection between end-systems (routing). subnet flow control. fragmentation & reassembly translation between different network types.

Issues:
packet headers virtual circuits

The Transport Layer


Responsibilities:
provides virtual end-to-end links between peer processes. end-to-end flow control

Issues:
headers error detection reliable communication

The Session Layer


Responsibilities:
establishes, manages, and terminates sessions between applications. service location lookup

Many protocol suites do not include a session layer.

The Presentation Layer


Responsibilities:
data encryption data compression data conversion

Many protocol suites do not include a Presentation Layer.

The Application Layer


Responsibilities:
anything not provided by any of the other layers

Issues:
application level protocols appropriate selection of type of service

Summary of layers

Connecting Networks
Repeater: Bridge: Router: Gateway: physical layer data link layer network layer network layer and above.

OSI & TCP/IP Models

Internet Layers (TCP/IP)

Interfaces between Layers


There is an interface between each pair of adjacent layers. This interface defines what information and services a layer must provide for the layer above it.

Physical Layer
The physical layer coordinates the functions required to transmit a bit stream over a physical medium. It also defines the procedures and functions that physical devices and interfaces have to perform for transmission occur.

The physical layer is responsible for transmitting individual bits from one node to the next.

Physical layer
The physical layer is concerned with the following:
Physical characteristics of interfaces and media: The physical layer defines the characteristics of the interface between devices and the transmission media, including its type. Representation of the bits: the physical layer data consist of a stream of bits without any interpretation. To be transmitted, bits must be encoded into signals electrical or optical-. The physical layer defines the type of encoding. Data rate: The physical layer defines the transmission rate, the number of bits sent each second. Line configuration: the physical layer is concerned with the connection of devices to the medium. Physical topology Transmission Mode

Data Link Layer


The data link layer transforms the physical layer, a raw transmission facility, to a reliable link and is responsible for node-to-node delivery. It makes the physical layer appear error free to the upper layer (network layer).

The data link layer is responsible for transmitting frames from one node to the next.

Node-to-node delivery

Functions of the data link layer: Framing. The data link layer divides the stream of bits received from the network layer into data units called frames. Physical addressing. If frames are to be distributed to different systems on the network, the data link layer adds a header to the frame to define the physical address of the sender (source address) and/or receiver (destination address) of the frame. If the frame is intended for a system outside the senders network, the receiver address is the address of the device that connects one network to the next.

Flow Control. If the rate at which the data are absorbed by the receiver is less than the rate produced in the sender, the data link layer imposes a flow control mechanism to prevent overwhelming the receiver. Error control. The data link layer adds reliability to the physical layer by adding mechanisms to detect and retransmit damaged or lost frames. Error control is normally achieved through a trailer to the end of the frame. Access Control. When two or more devices are connected to the same link, data link layer protocols are necessary to determine which device has control over the link at any time.

Network Layer
The Network layer is responsible for the source-to-destination delivery of a packet possible across multiple networks.

If two systems are connected to the same link, there is usually no need for a network layer. However, if the two systems are attached to different networks, there is often a need for the network layer to accomplish source-to-destination delivery.

Network Layer
Functions: Logical addressing. Routing

The network layer is responsible for the delivery of packets from the original source to the final destination.

Source-to-destination delivery

Logical addressing. The physical addressing implemented by the data link layer handles the addressing problem locally. The network layer adds a header to the packet coming from the upper layer, among other things, includes the logical address of the sender and receiver. Routing. When independent networks or links are connected together to create an internetwork (a network of networks) or a large network, the connecting devices (called routers or gateways) route or switch the packets to their final destination.

Transport Layer
The transport layer is responsible for process-to-process delivery of the entire message. The network layer oversees host-to-destination delivery of individual packets, it does not recognize any relationship between those packets. The transport layer ensures that the whole message arrives intact and in order, overseeing both error control and flow control at the process-to-process level.

Transport layer

The transport layer is responsible for delivery of a message from one process to another.

Reliable process-to-process delivery of a message

Functions of the transport layer

Port addressing:computer often run several processes (running programs) at the same time. Process-to-process delivery means delivery from a specific process on one computer to a specific process on the other. The transport layer header include a type of address called port address. The network layer gets each packet to the correct computer; the transport layer gets the entire message to the correct process on that computer.

Functions of the transport layer Segmentation and reassembly: a message is divided into transmittable segments, each having a sequence number. These numbers enable the transport layer to reassemble the message correctly upon arrival at the destination. Connection control: The transport layer can be either connectionless or connection-oriented. A connectionless transport layer treats each segment as an independent packet and delivers it to the transport layer at the destination machine. A connection-oriented transport layer makes a connection with the transport layer at the destination machine first before delivering the packets. After all the data are transferred, the connection is terminated.

Functions of the transport layer Flow control: the transport layer performs a flow control end to end. The data link layer performs flow control across a single link. Error control: the transport layer performs error control end to end. The data link layer performs control across a single link.

The session layer is the network dialog controller. It was designed to establish, maintain, and synchronize the interaction between communicating devices. The presentation layer was designed to handle the syntax and semantics of the information exchanged between the two systems. It was designed for data translation, encryption, decryption, and compression. The application layer enables the user to access the network. It provides user interfaces and support for services such electronic email, remote file access, WWW, and so on.

Application layer

The application layer is responsible for providing services to the user.

TCP/IP and OSI model with protocols

Versions:
Version 4 (current) Version 5 Version 6 (future)

Connecting devices

Addresses in TCP/IP

Relationship of layers and addresses in TCP/IP

Physical addresses

Example 1

Most local area networks use a 48-bit (6 bytes) physical address written as 12 hexadecimal digits, with every 2 bytes separated by a hyphen as shown below:

07-01-02-01-2C-4B A 6-byte (12 hexadecimal digits) physical address

IP addresses

Example 2

An Internet address (in IPv4) is 32 bits in length, normally written as four decimal numbers, with each number representing 1 byte. The numbers are separated by a dot. Below is an example of such an address.

132.24.75.9

Port addresses

Example 3

A port address is a 16-bit address represented by one decimal number as shown below.

753

A 16-bit port address

IP Addresses
An IP address is a 32-bit address. 32The IP addresses are unique.

RULE: If a protocol uses N bits to


define an address, the address space is 2N because each.. have two bit can .. addr1 different values (0 and 1) addr15 addr2 and N bits can have 2N values. .. ..
addr31 ..

The address space of IPv4 is addr41 addr226 232 .. or 4,294,967,296.

..

Binary Notation
01110101 10010101 00011101 11101010

Dotted-decimal notation

Hexadecimal Notation
0111 0101 1001 0101 0001 1101 1110 1010 75 95 1D EA

0x75951DEA

EXAMPLE 1

Change the following IP addresses from binary notation to dotted-decimal notation. a. 10000001 00001011 00001011 11101111 b. 11000001 10000011 00011011 11111111 c. 11100111 11011011 10001011 01101111 d. 11111001 10011011 11111011 00001111 Solution We replace each group of 8 bits with its equivalent decimal number (see Appendix B) and add dots for separation: a. 129.11.11.239 c. 231.219.139.111 b. 193.131.27.255 d. 249.155.251.15

EXAMPLE 2

Change the following IP addresses from dotted-decimal notation to binary notation. a. 111.56.45.78 c. 241.8.56.12 b. 221.34.7.82 d. 75.45.34.78

Solution
We replace each decimal number with its binary equivalent: a. 01101111 00111000 00101101 01001110 b. 11011101 00100010 00000111 01010010 c. 11110001 00001000 00111000 00001100 d. 01001011 00101101 00100010 01001110

EXAMPLE 3

Find the error, if any, in the following IP addresses: a. 111.56.045.78 c. 75.45.301.14 b. 221.34.7.8.20 d. 11100010.23.14.67

Solution
a. There are no leading zeroes in dotted-decimal notation (045). b. We may not have more than four numbers in an IP address. c. In dotted-decimal notation, each number is less than or equal to 255; 301 is outside this range. d. A mixture of binary notation and dotted-decimal notation is not allowed.

EXAMPLE 4

Change the following IP addresses from binary notation to hexadecimal notation. a. 10000001 00001011 00001011 11101111 b. 11000001 10000011 00011011 11111111 Solution We replace each group of 4 bits with its hexadecimal equivalent (see Appendix B). Note that hexadecimal notation normally has no added spaces or dots; however, 0X (or 0x) is added at the beginning or the subscript 16 at the end to show that the number is in hexadecimal. a. 0X810B0BEF or 810B0BEF16 b. 0XC1831BFF or C1831BFF16

IP Addresses: Classful Addressing


In classful addressing, the address space is divided into five classes: A, B, C, D, and E.

Occupation of the address space

Addresses per class

Finding the class in binary notation

Finding the address class

EXAMPLE 6

Find the class of each address: a. 00000001 00001011 00001011 11101111 b. 11000001 10000011 00011011 11111111 c. 10100111 11011011 10001011 01101111 d. 11110011 10011011 11111011 00001111 Solution See the procedure in Figure 4.4. a. The first bit is 0. This is a class A address. b. The first 2 bits are 1; the third bit is 0. This is a class C address. c. The first bit is 0; the second bit is 1. This is a class B address. d. The first 4 bits are 1s. This is a class E address..

EXAMPLE 5

How can we prove that we have 2,147,483,648 addresses in class A?

Solution In class A, only 1 bit defines the class. The remaining 31 bits are available for the address. With 31 bits, we can have 231 or 2,147,483,648 addresses.

Finding the class in decimal notation

EXAMPLE 7

Find the class of each address: a. 227.12.14.87 d. 252.5.15.111 b.193.14.56.22 e.134.11.78.56 c.14.23.120.8

Solution a. The first byte is 227 (between 224 and 239); the class is b. The first byte is 193 (between 192 and 223); the class is c. The first byte is 14 (between 0 and 127); the class is d. The first byte is 252 (between 240 and 255); the class is e. The first byte is 134 (between 128 and 191); the class is B.

D. C. A. E.

EXAMPLE 8

In Example 5 we showed that class A has 231 (2,147,483,648) addresses. How can we prove this same fact using dotteddecimal notation? Solution The addresses in class A range from 0.0.0.0 to 127.255.255.255. We need to show that the difference between these two numbers is 2,147,483,648. This is a good exercise because it shows us how to define the range of addresses between two addresses. We notice that we are dealing with base 256 numbers here. Each byte in the notation has a weight. The weights are as follows (see Appendix B):

See Next Slide

EXAMPLE 8 (CONTINUED)

2563, 2562, 2561, 2560 Now to find the integer value of each number, we multiply each byte by its weight: Last address: 127 2563 + 255 2562 + 255 2561 + 255 2560 = 2,147,483,647 First address: = 0 If we subtract the first from the last and add 1 to the result (remember we always add 1 to get the range), we get 2,147,483,648 or 231.

Netid and hostid

Note: In classful addressing, the network address (the first address in the block) is the one that is assigned to the organization. The range of addresses can automatically be inferred from the network address.

Blocks in class A

Note: Millions of class A addresses are wasted.

Blocks in class B

Note: Many class B addresses are wasted.

Blocks in class C

Note: The number of addresses in class C is smaller than the needs of most organizations.

Class D addresses are used for multicasting; there is only one block in this class.

Class E addresses are reserved for future purposes; most of the block is wasted.

EXAMPLE 9

1. 2. 3.

Given the network address 17.0.0.0, find the class, the block, and the range of the addresses. Given the network address 132.21.0.0, find the class, the block, and the range of the addresses. Given the network address 220.34.76.0, find the class, the block, and the range of the addresses.

Solution
The class is A because the first byte is between 0 and 127. The block has a netid of 17. The addresses range from 17.0.0.0 to 17.255.255.255. The class is B because the first byte is between 128 and 191. The block has a netid of 132.21. The addresses range from 132.21.0.0 to 132.21.255.255. The class is C because the first byte is between 192 and 223. The block has a netid of 220.34.76. The addresses range from 220.34.76.0 to 220.34.76.255.

Mask
A mask is a 32-bit binary number that gives the first address in the block (the network address) when bitwise ANDed with an address in the block.

Masking concept

The network address is the beginning address of each block. It can be found by applying the default mask to any of the addresses in the block (including itself). It retains the netid of the block and sets the hostid to zero.

Masking concept

Default masks

EXAMPLE 12
1. 2. 3. Given the address 23.56.7.91, find the beginning address (network address). Given the address 132.6.17.85, find the beginning address (network address). Given the address 201.180.56.5, find the beginning address (network address).

Solution
The default mask is 255.0.0.0, which means that only the first byte is preserved and the other 3 bytes are set to 0s. The network address is 23.0.0.0. The default mask is 255.255.0.0, which means that the first 2 bytes are preserved and the other 2 bytes are set to 0s. The network address is 132.6.0.0. The default mask is 255.255.255.0, which means that the first 3 bytes are preserved and the last byte is set to 0. The network address is 201.180.56.0.

Private Addresses
A number of blocks in each class are assigned for private use. They are not recognized globally. These blocks are depicted in the Table below.

Special addresses

Network address

Example of direct broadcast address

Example of limited broadcast address

Examples of this host on this network

Example of specific host on this network

Example of loopback address

A packet never leaves the machine;it simply returns to the protocol software. It can be used to test the IP software. Eg. 1. An application like ping can send a packet with a loop back address as the destination address to see if the IP software is capable of receiving and processing a packet. 2. A loop back address can be used by a client process (a running application program) to send a message to a server process on the same machine.

Unicast, Multicast, and Broadcast Addresses


Unicast communication is one-to-one. Multicast communication is one-to-many. Broadcast communication is one-to-all.

Category addresses

Addresses for conferencing

Sample internet

Time Line
The following is a list of important Internet events in chronological order: 1969. Four-node ARPANET established. 1970. ARPA hosts implement NCP. 1973. Development of TCP/IP suite begins. 1977. An internet tested using TCP/IP. 1978. UNIX distributed to academic sites.

1981. CSNET established. 1983. TCP/IP becomes the official protocol 1983. MILNET was born. 1986. NSFNET established. 1990. ARPANET replaced by NSFNET. 1995. NSFNET became a research network. 1995. ISPs started.

INTERNET STANDARDS

An Internet standard is a thoroughly tested specification. There is a strict procedure by which a specification attains Internet standard status. A specification begins as an Internet draft, working document with no official status and a six-month lifetime. A draft may be sixpublished as a Request for Comment (RFC).

Maturity levels of an RFC

Requirement levels of an RFC

Note: RFCs can be found at www.faqs.org/rfcs

Internet Administration

Internet Society (ISOC) Internet Architecture Board (IAB) Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) Internet Research Task Force (IRTF) Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) Names and Numbers (ICANN) Network Information Center (NIC)

Internet administration

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