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EXPERT SYSTEMS AND SOLUTIONS
Email: expertsyssol@gmail.com expertsyssol@yahoo.com Cell: 9952749533 www.researchprojects.info PAIYANOOR, OMR, CHENNAI Call For Research Projects Final year students of B.E in EEE, ECE, EI, M.E (Power Systems), M.E (Applied Electronics), M.E (Power Electronics) Ph.D Electrical and Electronics. Students can assemble their hardware in our Research labs. Experts will be guiding the projects.
T Srinivasa Rao
Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation (EC-315)
EC-315 Electronic measurement and Instrumentation

UNIT - I T Srinivasa Rao Dept. of ECE Bapatla Engineering College
Objective of course
To provide students with a fundamental understanding of the concepts, principles, procedures, and computations used by engineers and technologists to analyze, select, specify, design, and maintain modern instrumentation and control systems
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Part 1
MEASURENT AND ERROR: Definitions, Accuracy and precision, Types of errors, Statistical analysis, robability of errors, Limiting Errors.
Part 2
DIRECT CURRENT INDICATING INSTRUMENTS: DC ammeters, DC voltmeters, Series type ohmmeter, Shunt type ohmmeter, Multimeter, Calibration of DC Instruments.
Part 3
DC & AC BRIDGES: Wheatstone, Kelvin, Guarded Wheatstone, Maxwell, Hay, Schering and Wein bridges, Wagner ground connection..
T Srinivasa Rao
Error: The difference between the reported value and the (usually unknown) true value of a quantity. Validity: How well an instrument (or measurement technique) reflects what it is purported to measure. Depends on details of the instrument, and varies with the operating conditions. Robustness: When the input to an instrument varies slightly, does its output stably reflect the changes, or does it become unstable, or chaotic? Reliability: Given very different values, or measurements taken at very different times, are the measurements consistent? Repeatability: Do repeated measurements, on a constant true value, give the same answer? Accuracy: How close is the mean measurement of a series of trials to the true value? Precision: How much do the measurements vary from trial to trial? Resolution: How finely can we and/or the instrument separate one value from another that's close to it? Mistake: .Human error.!
T Srinivasa Rao Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation (EC-315) 6
T Srinivasa Rao
Instruments
Detector Device that indicates a change in one variable in its environment (eg., pressure, temp, particles) Can be mechanical, electrical, or chemical Sensor Analytical device capable of monitoring specific chemical species continuously and reversibly Transducer Devices that convert information in nonelectrical domains to electrical domains and the converse
Simple instrument model
Instrument model with amplifier, analog to digital converter and computer output
Part 1
MEASUREMENT AND ERROR
CONTENTS

Definitions Accuracy and Precision Significant Figures Types of Error Statistical Analysis Probability of Errors Probable Error Limiting Errors Systems of Units of Measurement Standards of Measurement
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Limiting Errors Systems of Units of Measurement Standards of Measurement
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Definitions
Measurement : generally involves using an instrument as a physical means of determining a quantity or variable Instrument : a device for determining the value or magnitude of a quantity or variable Accuracy : closeness with which an instrument reading approaches the true value of the variable being measured. Precision : a measure of the reproducibility of the measurements; i.e., given a fixed value of a variable, precision is a measure of the degree to which successive measurements differ from one another Sensitivity : the ratio of output signal or response of the instrument to a change of input or measured variable. Resolution : the smallest change in measured value to which th instrument will respond. Error : deviation from the true value of the measured variable.
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Accuracy and Precision

Precision is composed of two characteristics : conformity and the number of significant figures to which a measurement may be made Conformity is a necesary, but not sufficient, condition for precision because of the lack of significant figures obtained Precision is a necesary, but not sufficient, condition for accuracy.
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Significant Figures
Significant figures convey actual information regarding the magnitude and the measurement precision of a quantity The more significant figures, the greater the precision of the measurement When a number of independent measurements are taken in an effort to obtain the best possible answer (closest the true value), the result is usually expressed as the arithmetic mean of all readings, with the range of possible error as the largest deviation from that mean When two or more measurements with different degrees of accuracy are added, the result is only as accurate as the least accurate measurement.
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Types of Error
Gross errors : largely human errors, among them misreading of instruments, incorrect adjustments, and computational mistakes. Systematic errors : shortcomings of the instruments, such as defective or worn parts, and effects of the environment on equipment or the user. Random errors : those due to causes that cannot be directly established because of random variations in the parameter or the system of measurement.
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Statistical Analysis
Arithmetic mean Deviation from the mean Average deviation Standard deviation Standard deviation of a finite number of data
x! x1 x 2 x 3 ..... x n x ! n n
d n ! xn x
D!
d 1 d 2 d 3 ... d n n
d
n
W !
d 12 d 22 d 32 ... d n2 ! n
d
n
2 i
d 12 d 22 d 32 ... d n2 W! ! n 1
2 i
n 1
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Probability of Errors
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Probable Error
Deviation (+) ( ) Fraction of total area included
0.6745
0.5000
1.0
0.6828
2.0
0.9546
3.0
0.9972
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Limiting Errors
In most indicating instruments the accuracy is guaranteed to a certain percentage of full-scale reading. Circuit components (such as capacitors, resistors, etc.) are guaranteed within a certain percentage of their rated value. The limits of these deviations from the specified values are known as limiting errors or guarantee errors.
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System of Unit Measurements

Decimal multiples and submultiples
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Basic SI Quantities, Units, and Symbols
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Electric and Magnetic Units
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Fundamental, Supplementary, and Derived Units
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English Into SI Conversion
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Standards of Measurement
Standard of measurement is a physical representation of a unit of measurement Classification :
International standards Primary standards Secondary standards Working standard
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Part 2
Direct Current Indicating Instruments
CONTENTS

Permanent-magnet moving-coil mechanism (PMMC) Galvanometer sensitivity DC ammeters DC voltmeters Voltmeter-ammeter method Series-Type Ohmmeter Shunt-Type Ohmmeter Multimeter or VOM Calibration of DC Instruments
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Suspension Galvanometer
This instrument was the forerunner of the moving-coil instrument, basic to most dc indicating instruments currently used
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Torque and Deflection of The Galvanometer

Steady-state Deflection
Torque deflection :
T !Bv AvI vN
The practical coil area generally ranges from approximately 0.5 to 2.5 cm2 Flux densities for modern instruments usually range from 1,500 to 5,000 gauss (0.15 to 0.5 Wb/m2)
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Dynamic Behavior
The motion of a moving coil in a magnetic field is characterized by three quantities :
The moment of inertia (J) of the moving coil about its axis of rotation The opposing torque (S) developed by the coil suspension The damping constant (D).
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Damping Mechanisms
Galvanometer damping is provided by two mechanisms : mechanical and electromagnetic A galvanometer may also be damped by connecting a resistor across the coil --- CDRX (Critical Damping Resistance External)
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PMMC
Permanent Magnet Moving-Coil Mechanism Ofte called d Arsonval movement Construction -------------------
Details of PMMC movement --------
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Temperature Compensation
Both the magnetic fieldstrength and spring-tension decrease with an increase in temperature The coil resistance increases with an increase in temperature The spring change, conversely, tends to cause the pointer to read high with an increase in temperature Compensation may be accomplished by using swamping resistors in series with the movable coil
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Galvanometer Sensitivity
Current sensitivity may be defined as a ratio of the deflection of the galvanometer to the current producing this deflection Voltage sensitivity may be defined as the ratio of the galvanometer deflection to the voltage producing this deflection Megohm sensitivity may be defined as the number of megohms required in series with the (CDRX shunted) galvanometer to produce one scale division deflection when 1 V is applied to the circuit Ballistic sensitivity and is defined as the ratio of the maximum deflection, dm, of a galvanometer to the quantity Q of electric charge in a single pulse which produces this deflection.
SI ! d mm I QA d mm V mV
SV !
SR !
d mm ! SI I QA
SQ !
d m mm Q QC
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DC Ammeters
Shunt Resistor
Im m ! I Im
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Ayrton Shunt
Schematic diagram of a simple multirange ammeter --------
Universal or Ayrton shunt --
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DC Voltmeters
Basic dc voltmeter circuit --
V I m Rm V Rs ! ! Rm Im Im
Multirange voltmeter -------- Voltmeter sensitivity :

S! 1 ; I fsd V
Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation (EC-315) 38
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Voltmeter-Ammeter Method
A popular type of resistance measurement Effect of voltmeter and ammeter positions in voltmeter-ammeter measurements -----------------
Effect of the voltmeter position in a voltmeter-ammeter measurements ------------------
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Series-Type Ohmmeter
Certain disadvantage : when the battery is old, the full-scale current drops and the meter does not read "0" when A and B are shorted The design can be approach by recognizing that, if introducing Rh reduces the 1 meter current to I
2
fsd
R1 ! Rh
I fsd Rm Rh E
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Shunt-Type Ohmmeter
Particularly suited to the measurement of low-value resistors When R ! g the full-scale meter current will be E
x
I fsd !
R1 R m
The meter current for any value of Rx , expressed as a fraction of the full-scale current, is
Rx s! Rx R p
At half-scale reading of the meter R1 R m Rh ! R1 R m
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Multimeter or VOM
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Schematic diagram of the Simpson Model 260 multimeter
dc voltmeter section of the Simpson Model 260 multimeter
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DC Ammeter section of the multimeter
Ohmmeter section of the multimeter
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Calibration of DC Instruments
Potentiometer method of calibrating a dc ammeter ---
Potentiometer method of calibrating a dc voltmeter ---
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Introduction to Alternating-current Indicating Instruments

The d'Arsonval movement responds to the average or dc value of the current through the moving coil If the movement carries an alternating current with positive and negative half cycles, the driving torque would be in one direction for the positive alternation and other direction for the negative alternation If the frequency of the ac is very low, the pointer would swing back and forth around zero point on the meter scale At higher frequencies, the inertia of the coil is so great that the pointer cannot follow the rapid reversals of the driving torque and hovers around the zero mark, vibrating slightly.
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Part 3 DC & AC Bridges
CONTENTS

Introduction Wheatstone bridge Kelvin bridge Maxwell Hay Schering Wein bridges Wagner ground connection Comparison bridges
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Introduction
Bridge circuits are extensively used for measuring component values, such as resistance, inductance, or capacitance, and of other circuit parameters directly derived from component values Its accuracy can be very high.
Bridges are electrical circuits for performing null measurements on resistances in DC and general impedances in AC
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Wheatstone bridge
Photograph of the instrument
Simplified schematic of the bridge circuit------------------
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Wheatstone bridge
R1RX = R2R3
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Basic operation
R x ! R3
R2 R1
Measurement errors :
Found in the limiting errors of the three known resistors Insufficient sensitivity of the null detector Changes in resistance of the bridge arms due to the heating effect of the current through the resistors Thermal emfs in the bridge circuit or the galvanometer circuit (when low-value resistors are being measured) Errors due to the resistance of leads and contacts exterior to the actual bridge circuit
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Thevenin Equivalent Circuit
Wheatstone bridge configuration --------------------
Thevenin resistance looking into terminals c and d --------
Complete Thevenin circuit, with the galvanometer connected to terminals c and d
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The Thevenin, or open circuit voltage :
E cd
R1 R2 ! E R R R R 3 2 4 1
The galvanometer current :
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The Thevenin resistance :
R1 R3 R2 R4 R1 R3 R2 R 4
ETH Ig ! RTH R g
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Kelvin Bridge
Wheatstone bridge circuit, showing resistance Ry of the lead from point m to point n
R1 Rx ! R3 R2
Basic Kelvin double bridge circuit --------------------------
R1 R x ! R3 R2
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Loop Tests with The Portable Test Set

Murray-loop test, used for locating a ground fault (short circuit) -----------------------------
B l x ! 2l A B
Varley-loop test: (a) no.1; (b) no. 2; (c) no.3, used to locate grounds, crosses, or short circuits in multiconductor cable
R2 X1 ! 2
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Guarded Wheatstone Bridge

Used for high resistance measurements
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General Form of The AC Bridge
Z1Z 4 ! Z 2 Z 3
U1 U 4 ! U 2 U 3
Comparison Bridges
Capacitance comparison bridge Equating the real terms : R R x ! Rs 2 R1 Equating the imaginary terms :
x
R1 R2
Inductance comparison bridge
L x ! Ls
R2 R1
R x ! Rs
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R2 R1
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Inductance comparison bridge with extended measurement range R With the switch in position 1 : R x ! R s r 2 R1 With the switch in position 2 :
Rx ! Rs
R2 r R1
60
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Maxwell Bridge
The Maxwell bridge measures an unknown inductance in terms of a known capacitance. The maxwell bridge is limited to the measurement of medium-Q coils (1<Q<10).
R 2 R3 Rx ! R1
L x ! R 2 R 3 C1
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Hay Bridge
The Hay circuit is more convenient for measuring high-Q coils Hay bridge for inductance measurements ---------------------
Impedance triangles illustrate inductive and capacitive phase angles -------------------------------for Q>10 :
L x ! R 2 R3 C
Hay Bridge
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Schering Bridge
The Schering bridge, one of the most important bridges, is used extensively for the measurement of capacitors. Schering bridge for measurement of capacitance --------------------
C1 R x ! R2 C3
R1 C x ! C3 R2
Dissipation factor :
D ! [ R1 C 1
Unbalance Conditions
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Bridge balancing problem :

(a) unbalanced condition (b) bridge balance is restored by adding a resistor to arm 1 (maxwell configuration) (c) Alternative method of restoring bridge balance, by adding a capacitor to arm 3
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Wien Bridge
Applications :
Frequency measureent Notch filter Frequency-determining element
Frequency measurement with the Wien bridge -----------------------
f !
1 2TRC
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Wagner Ground Connection

The wagner ground connection eliminates the effect of stray capacitances across the detector
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Universal Impedance Bridge
Universal impedance bridge
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Bridge configurations of the universal impedance bridge
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Summary
Wheatstone Kelvin Capacitive Comparision Inductive Comparision Maxwell Hay Schering Wein
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Wein s Bridge
Schering s Bridge
74
75
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EXPERT SYSTEMS AND SOLUTIONS

Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation (EC-315)

EC-315 Electronic measurement and Instrumentation

Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation (EC-315)

Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation (EC-315)

Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation (EC-315)

Simple instrument model

Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation (EC-315)

Limiting Errors Systems of Units of Measurement Standards of Measurement

Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation (EC-315)

Accuracy and Precision

Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation (EC-315)

Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation (EC-315)

Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation (EC-315)

Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation (EC-315)

Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation (EC-315)

Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation (EC-315)

Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation (EC-315)

System of Unit Measurements

Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation (EC-315)

Basic SI Quantities, Units, and Symbols

Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation (EC-315)

Electric and Magnetic Units

Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation (EC-315)

Fundamental, Supplementary, and Derived Units

Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation (EC-315)

English Into SI Conversion

Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation (EC-315)

Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation (EC-315)

Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation (EC-315)

Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation (EC-315)

Torque and Deflection of The Galvanometer

Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation (EC-315)

Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation (EC-315)

Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation (EC-315)

Details of PMMC movement --------

Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation (EC-315)

Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation (EC-315)

Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation (EC-315)

Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation (EC-315)

Universal or Ayrton shunt --

Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation (EC-315)

Multirange voltmeter -------- Voltmeter sensitivity :

Effect of the voltmeter position in a voltmeter-ammeter measurements ------------------

Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation (EC-315)

Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation (EC-315)

At half-scale reading of the meter R1 R m Rh ! R1  R m

Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation (EC-315)

Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation (EC-315)

Schematic diagram of the Simpson Model 260 multimeter

dc voltmeter section of the Simpson Model 260 multimeter

Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation (EC-315)

DC Ammeter section of the multimeter

Ohmmeter section of the multimeter

Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation (EC-315)

Potentiometer method of calibrating a dc voltmeter ---

Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation (EC-315)

Introduction to Alternating-current Indicating Instruments

Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation (EC-315)

Part 3 DC & AC Bridges

Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation (EC-315)

Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation (EC-315)

At half-scale reading of the meter R1 R m Rh ! R1 R m