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CS 491/691(X) - Lecture 3
Review
Spectrum of robot control
Reactive, deliberative
CS 491/691(X) - Lecture 3
DC Motors
DC (direct current) motors
Convert electrical energy into mechanical energy Small, cheap, reasonably efficient, easy to use
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Motor Efficiency
DC motors are not perfectly efficient Some limitations (mechanical friction) of motors
Some energy is wasted as heat
Industrial-grade motors (good quality): 90% Toy motors (cheap): efficiencies of 50% Electrostatic micro-motors for miniature robots: e50%
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Operating Voltage
Making the motor run requires electrical power in the right voltage range Most motors will run fine at lower voltages, though they will be less powerful Can operate at higher voltages at expense of operating life
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Operating/Stall Current
When provided with a constant voltage, a DC motor draws current proportional to how much work it is doing When there is no resistance to its motion, the motor draws the least amount of current
Moving in free space less current Pushing against an obstacle (wall) drain more current
If the resistance becomes very high the motor stalls and draws the maximum amount of current at its specified voltage (stall current)
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Torque
Torque: rotational force that a motor can deliver at a certain distance from the shaft Strength of magnetic field generated in loops of wire is directly proportional to amount of current flowing through them and thus the torque produced on motors shaft The more current through a motor, the more torque at the motors shaft
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Stall Torque
Stall torque: the amount of rotational force produced when the motor is stalled at its recommended operating voltage, drawing the maximal stall current at this voltage Typical torque units: ounce-inches
5 oz.-in. torque means motor can pull weight of 5 oz up through a pulley 1 inch away from the shaft
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Power of a Motor
Power: product of the output shafts rotational velocity and torque No load on the shaft P=0
Rotational velocity is at its highest, but the torque is zero The motor is spinning freely (it is not driving any mechanism)
A motor produces the most power in the middle of its performance range.
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Gearing
Tradeoff high speed for more torque Seesaw physics
Downward force is equal to weight times their distance from the fulcrum.
Torque: T = F x r
rotational force generated at the center of a gear is equal to the gears radius times the force applied tangential at the circumference
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Meshing Gears
By combining gears with different ratios we can control the amount of force and torque generated
Work = force x distance Work = torque x angular movement
Example: r2 = 3r1
Gear 1 turns three times (1080 degrees) while gear 2 turns only once (360 degrees) Toutput x 360 = Tinput x 1080 Toutput = 3 Tinput = Tinput x r2/r1
Gear 1 with radius r1 turns an angular distance of 51 while Gear 2 with radius r2 turns an angular distance of 52.
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Gearing Examples
3 to 1 Gear Reduction Input (driving) gear: 8 teeth Output (driven) gear: 24 teeth Effect:
1/3 reduction in speed and 3 times increase in torque at 24-tooth gear
3 turns of left gear (8 teeth) cause 1 turn of right gear (24 teeth)
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With such reductions, high speeds and low torques are transformed into usable speeds and powerful torques
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Servo Motors
Specialized motors that can move their shaft to a specific position DC motors can only move in one direction Servo
capability to self-regulate its behavior, i.e., to measure its own position and compensate for external loads when responding to a control signal
Servo Motors
Servo motors are built from DC motors by adding:
Gear reduction Position sensor for the motor shaft Electronics that tell the motor how much to turn and in what direction
Movement limitations
Shaft travel is restricted to 180 degrees Sufficient for most applications
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Effectors
Effector: any robot device that has an effect on the environment Robot effectors
Wheels, tracks, arms grippers
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Wheels for example have only one degree of freedom Robotic arms have many more DOFs
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These are all the possible ways a helicopter can move If a robot has an actuator for every DOF then all DOF are controllable In practice, not all DOF are controllable
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A Car DOF
A car has 3 DOF
Translation in two directions Rotation in one direction
The two available degrees of freedom can get to any position and orientation in 2D
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Holonomicity
A robot is holonomic if the number of controllable DOF is equal to the number of DOF of the robot A robot is non-holonomic if the number of controllable DOF is smaller than the number of DOF of the robot A robot is redundant if the number of controllable DOF is larger than the number of DOF of the robot
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Redundancy Example
A human arm has 7 degrees of freedom
3 in the shoulder (up-down, side-to-side, rotation) 3 DOF 1 in elbow (open-close) 3 in wrist (up-down, side-to-side, rotation)
How can that be possible? The arm still moves in 3D, but there are multiple ways of moving it to a position in space This is why controlling complex robotic arms is a hard problem
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1 DOF
ses of Effectors
Locomotion
Moving a robot around
Manipulation
Moving objects around
Stability
Robots need to be stable to get their job done Stability can be
Static: the robot can stand still without falling over Dynamic: the body must actively balance or move to remain stable
Static stability is achieved through the mechanical design of the robot Dynamic stability is achieved through control
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Stability
What do you think about people?
Humans are not statically stable Active control of the brain is needed, although it is largely unconscious
Stability becomes easier if you would have more legs For stability, the center of gravity (COG) of the body needs to be above the polygon of support (area covered by the ground points) Bad designs
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Six legs are very popular (both in nature and in robotics) and allow for very stable walking
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Tripod Gait
Gait: the particular order in which a robot/animal lifts and lowers its legs to move Tripod gait
keep 3 legs on the ground while other 3 are moving
Ripple Gait Tripod Gait
The same three legs move at a time alternating tripod gait Wave-like motion ripple gait
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Dynamic Stability
Allows for greater speed and efficiency, but requires more complex control Enables a robot to stay up while moving, however the robot cannot stop and stay upright Dynamic stability requires active control
the inverse pendulum problem
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Quadruped Gaits
Trotting gait
diagonal legs as pairs
Pacing gait
lateral pairs
Bounding
front pair and rear pair
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Wheels
Wheels are the locomotion effector of choice in robotics
Simplicity of control Stability
Most robots have four wheels or two wheels and a passive caster for balance
Such models are non-holonomic
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Differential steering
Two or more wheels can be steered separately and differently
Getting There
Robot locomotion is necessary for
Getting the robot to a particular location Having the robot follow a particular path
Path following is more difficult than getting to a destination Some paths are impossible to follow
This is due to non-holonomicity
Some paths can be followed, but only with discontinuous velocity (stop, turn, go)
Parallel parking
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Manipulation
Manipulation: moving a part of the robot (manipulator arm) to a desired location and orientation in 3D The end-effector is the extreme part of the manipulator that affects the world Manipulation has numerous challenges
Getting there safely: should not hurt others or hurt yourself Getting there effectively
Teleoperation
Requires a great deal of skill from the human operator
Manipulator complexity Interface constraints (joystick, exoskeleton) Sensing limitations
Kinematics
Kinematics: correspondence between what the actuator does and the resulting effector motion
Manipulators are typically composed of several links connected by joints Position of each joint is given as angle w.r.t adjacent joints Kinematics encode the rules describing the structure of the manipulator
Find where the end-point is, given the joint angles of a robot arm
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Types of Joints
There are two main types of joints Rotary
Rotational movement around a fixed axis
Prismatic
Linear movement
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Inverse Kinematics
To get the end-effector to a desired point one needs to plan a path that moves the entire arm safely to the goal
The end point is in Cartesian space (x, y, z) Joint positions are in joint space (angle 5)
Inverse Kinematics: converting from Cartesian (x, y, z) position to joint angles of the arm (theta) Given the goal position, find the joint angles for the robot arm This is a computationally intensive process
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Readings
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