Behavioral Theories

Behavioral Theories

Behavioral Theories
From about 1930 until 1950, research methods for studying social and psychological issues were not as sophisticated as they are today. When psychologists tried to replicate the studies, for example, they were not always successful. Researchers knew their inquiries were important because they seemed to point to the correlations between traits and leaders. But the inability to obtain the same results when repeating the studies raised further questions. Why couldnt researchers scientifically replicate these results?

Behavioral Theories
While you cant easily measure confidence or loyalty in a person, they noted, you can define a behavior or a set of behaviors that seem to embody the trait. Researchers define behaviors as observable actions, which makes measuring them more scientifically valid than trying to measure a human personality trait.

Behavioral Theories
Behavioral theory contains some very different assumptions from trait theory. Trait theory assumes that a leader is born with specific traits that make him or her a good leader. Behavioral theory, on the other hand, assumes that you can learn to become a good leader because you are not drawing on personality traits. Your actionswhat you dodefine your leadership ability.

Behavioral Theories
Some researchers pointed to the inherent difficulty in measuring a human personality trait. How do you effectively and consistently measure confidence or loyalty, for example? Still further questions arose about the impact of the particular situation or the followersattitudes on the leaders behavior and performance. Research into these and other issues led to the birth of additional leadership theories in the 1950s and 1960s. One key idea that led to new thinking about leadership was behavioral theory.

Behavioral Theories
But two important studies in behavioral theory at the University of Michigan and the Ohio State University became famous in the next generation of leadership research. These studies identified two key behavioral categories orientation toward task orientation toward people.

The Michigan Studies

The Michigan studies, which began in the late 1950s, found three critical characteristics of effective leaders.

Task-oriented behavior
First, they identified task-oriented (directive) behavior in managers who did not do the same types of tasks as their subordinates. This group of managers spent time planning, coordinating, and overseeing their subordinates execution of tasks.

Relationship-oriented behavior
A second type of leader exhibited relationship-oriented (supportive) behavior. These managers concentrated on the task results, but also developed relationships with their subordinates. They were supportive and focused on internal rewards as well as external rewards.

Participative leadership
The third style of leadership was participative leadership. Here, the manager facilitated rather than directed, working to build a cohesive team to achieve team results rather than focusing on individuals.

Reward and Punishment Leadership

The leader rewards the followers with tangible and intangible benefits. This based on either the followers performance or the leaders wishes. Monetary rewards, praise, reduction in pay, promotion, are some of the techniques employed.

Charismatic Leadership
The leader describes a vision of future with goals, opportunities and roles for the followers that have a moral dimension. There is an emotional appeal to the followers needs and values.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Assign specific tasks to others Show consideration and acceptance of others Involve others in making decisions Provide subordinates with incentives Criticize poor performers Set the goals for the group Develop and communicate vision to the group Show consideration and acceptance of others

9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

Explain the tasks of each member Display high expectations and confidence Motivate others to give ideas and suggestions Recommend good subordinates for promotion Show concern when others are sick Coach members to improve their abilities Inspire others by stressing their role Encourage 2 way communication

The Ohio State Studies

The Ohio State studies also examined leaders task versus people orientation. These studies dubbed task-oriented behavior initiating structure, and peopleoriented behavior consideration.

Blake & Moutons Leadership Grid

Development Purpose Designed to explain how leaders help organizations to reach their purposes Two factors Concern for production
How a leader is concerned with achieving organizational tasks

Developed in early 1960s Used extensively in organizational training & development

Concern for people

How a leader attends to the members of the organization who are trying to achieve its goals

Behavioral Approaches that Help Determine Leadership Effectiveness

Consideration: Is mindful of subordinates. Establishes mutual trust. Provides open communication. Develops teamwork. Initiating Structure: Is task oriented. Directs subordinate work activities toward goal attainment. Typically gives instructions, spends time planning, and emphasizes deadlines. Provides explicit schedules of work activities.

The Leadership Grid Figure

High
1,9 Country Club Management Thoughtful attention to the needs of people for satisfying relationships leads to a comfortable, friendly organization atmosphere and work tempo. 9,9 Team Management Work accomplishment is from committed people; interdependence through a common stake in organization purpose leads to relationships of trust and respect.

Concern for People

Low

Low

5,5 Middle-of-the-Road Management Adequate organization performance is possible through balancing the necessity to get out work with maintaining morale of people at a satisfactory level. Impoverished Authority-Compliance Management Efficiency in operations results Exertion of minimum effort from arranging conditions of to get required work done work in such a way that human is appropriate to sustain elements interfere to a organization membership. minimum 1,1 degree. 9,1

Concern for Production

High

Source: The Leadership Grid Figure from Robert R. Blake and Anne Adams McCanse, Leadership Dilemmas-Grid Solutions (Houston: Gulf, 1991), 29. Copyright 1991, by Scientific Methods, Inc. Reproduced by permission of the owners.

Blake & Moutons Leadership Grid

Blake & Moutons Managerial (Leadership) Grid

Leadership Grid Components Authority-Compliance (9,1) Country Club Management (1,9) Impoverished Management (1,1) Middle-of-the-Road Management (5,5) Team Management (9,9)

Authority-Compliance (9,1)
Definition Efficiency in operations results from arranging conditions of work such that human interference is minimal Role Focus
Heavy emphasis on task and job requirements and less emphasis on people Communicating with subordinates outside task instructions not emphasized Results driven - people regarded as tools to that end 9,1 leaders seen as controlling, demanding, hard-driving & overpowering

Country Club (1,9)

Definition Thoughtful attention to the needs of people leads to a comfortable, friendly organizational atmosphere and work tempo Role Focus
Low concern for task accomplishment coupled with high concern for interpersonal relationships De-emphasizes production; leaders stress the attitudes and feelings of people 1,9 leaders try to create a positive climate by being agreeable, eager to help, comforting, noncontroversial

Impoverished (1,1)
Definition Role Focus
Leader unconcerned with both task and interpersonal relationships Going through the motions, but uninvolved and withdrawn 1,1 leaders - have little contact with followers and are described as indifferent, noncommittal, resigned, and apathetic

Minimal effort exerted to get work done is appropriate to sustain organizational membership

Middle-of-the-Road (5,5)
Definition Adequate organizational performance possible through balancing the necessity of getting work done while maintaining satisfactory morale Role Focus
Leaders who are compromisers; have intermediate concern for task and people who do task To achieve equilibrium, leader avoids conflict while emphasizing moderate levels of production and interpersonal relationships 5,5 leaders - described as expedient; prefers the middle ground, soft-pedals disagreement, swallows convictions in the interest of progress

Team (9,9)
Definition Work accomplished through committed people; interdependence via a common stake in the organizations purpose, which leads to relationships of trust and respect Role Focus Strong emphasis on both tasks and interpersonal relationships Promotes high degree of participation & teamwork, satisfies basic need of employee to be involved & committed to their work 9,9 leaders - stimulates participation, acts determined, makes priorities clear, follows through, behaves open-mindedly and enjoys working

Additional Styles

Paternalism/Maternalism
Definition Role Focus Leaders who use both 1,9 and 9,1 without integrating the two The benevolent dictator; acts gracious for purpose of goal accomplishment Treats people as though they were disassociated from the task

Reward and approval are bestowed on people in return for loyalty and obedience; failure to comply leads to punishment

Strengths
Style Approach marked a major shift in leadership research from exclusively trait focused to include behaviors and actions of leaders Broad range of studies on leadership style validates and gives credibility to the basic tenets of the approach At conceptual level, a leaders style is composed of two major types of behaviors: task and relationship The style approach is heuristic - leaders can learn a lot about themselves and how they come across to others by trying to see their behaviors in light of the task and relationship dimensions

Criticisms
Research has not adequately demonstrated how leaders styles are associated with performance outcomes No universal style of leadership that could be effective in almost every situation Implies that the most effective leadership style is High-High style (i.e., high task/high relationship); research finding support is limited

Application
Many leadership training and development programs are designed along the lines of the style approach. By assessing their own style, managers can determine how they are perceived by others and how they could change their behaviors to become more effective. The style approach applies to nearly everything a leader does.

Effects of Leaders Behaviour

Psychological reactions
Perceptions Attitudes Feelings Motivations Expectations

Behavioural outcomes
Performance Absenteeism turnover

Leadership Enhancers
These are situational or follower characteristics that increase the influence on followers. Cohesive work group with strong norms Organizing a large number of followers Stressful, dangerous or dissatisfying jobs

Leadership Neutralisers
Those that decrease the effectiveness of the leader Large geographical distance Organiszational reward systems Lack of authority