Anatomy and Physiology of skin

Basic structure and function

SKIN
Largest, Thinnest, Important organ. Self-Repairing and protective boundary. Surface area: 2m (approx). Depth 0.5 -4.0mm: thickness depends on location.

It is classified into:1. EPIDERMIS 2. DERMIS

Epithelial layer derived from ectodermal germ layer. Superficial and thinner layer. Includes Also hairs, sweat glands, sebaceous glands. Avascular tissue, made up of keratinocytes that germinate in the lowest layer and migrate towards the surface whilst changing in character. 4-5 layers depending on location. Protective and regulatory functions.

EPIDERMIS

hands, soles of feet and other body surface subjected to friction is called the thick skin. -Hairs are not found in thick skin. -Each of 5 strata of epidermis are present. -Outermost stratum- stratum corneum is especially noticeable in thick skin. -In thick skin underlying dermal papillae are raised in curving ridges to form FINGER PRINTS or FOOTPRINTS. -These helps in pick up and manipulate small objects with hands and provide slip resistance to soles of feet.

-The hairless skin covering the palms of

THICK AND THIN SKIN

THIN SKIN
- Most of the body surface is covered by thin skin. - Number of cell layers of epidermis are less than that of thick skin. - One or more strata may be absent. - Raised curved papillae are not present.

 KERATINOCYTES become filled with a tough, fibrous protein called keratin. -More than 90% of epidermal cells. -Principal structure element of outer skin. MELANOCYTES contribute color to the skin. -Decrease the amount of UV rays that can penetrate into deeper layers of skin. - More than 5% of epidermal cells. - Melanocytes may be completely absent from skin called VITILIGO.

CELL TYPES

- LANGERHANS CELLS dendritic cells, branched cells that play role in immunity. - These cells originate in bone marrow but migrate to deep cell layers of epidermis early in life. - Merkel cells: touchsensitive. - Merkel discs: tactile disc.

CELL LAYERS
1. STRATUM BASALE ( base layer ) :-primary layer -Single layer of columnar cells. -Cells of deepest stratum of epithelial undergo MITOSIS. -As a result cells transfer or migrate from basal layer to the other layer until they are shed from the skin surface. -contains stem cells connected to the papillary layer of the dermis regenerating layer contains some sensory cells (Merkelsdiscs) contains melanocytes (25%)

2. STRATUM SPINOSUM (spiny layer)

-Formed from 8-10 layers of irregularly shaped cells with very prominent bridges or desmosomes. -The desmosomes appear to pull points of the plasma membrane of adjoining cells toward are another. -This gives cells of this layer a spiny or prickly appearance, prickly layer. - Rich in RNA. - The term stratum germinativum (growth layer) is often used to describe the stratum basale and stratum spinosum together.

3. STRATUM GRANULOSM (granular layer) : granular layer

contain keratohylin-a precursor to keratin. Process of surface keratin formation begins cells take on protective function in this layer degeneration of cell nucleus begins -some cell death occurs. Cells are arranged in a sheet.

4. STRATUM LUCIDUM (clear layer)

friction layer. The kertinocytes in this layer are flats, closely packed and clear. Typically nuclei are absent. Filled with a substance called ELEIDIN, which will be transformed to keratin. This layer is absent in thin skin but is apparent in section of thick skin. 3 -5 cells deep high friction, non-haired areas -eg soles,

- Superficial layer.

5. STRATUM CORNEUM (horny layer)

- composed of very thin squamous cells. - Continually being shed and replaced. - Cytoplasm in these cells has been replaced by a dense network of keratin fibers. -The process by which cells in this layer are formed from cells in deeper layer of epidermis and then filled with keratin and moved to the surface is called as KERATINIZATION. -The stratum corneum is sometimes called the barrier area of the skin because it function as a barrier to water loss and to many microorganism and harmful chemicals. Once this barrier layer is damaged, the effectiveness of skin as a protective covering is greatly reduced. - Sometimes certain diseases of skin cause the thickening of this layer more than normal limits called hyperkeratosis.

- Turnover time and regeneration time are terms used to describe the period required for a population of cells to mature and reproduce. - Lost cells are replaced by mitotic activity. - New cells are formed at the same rate that old keratinized cells flake off from the stratum corneum, to maintain a constant thickness of the epidermis. Current research suggest that regeneration time required for completion of mitosis, is about 35 days.

EPIDERMAL GROWTH AND REPAIR

 The process can be accelerated by abrasion of skin surface, which tend to peel off a few of the cell layers of stratum corneum. If the abrasion continues over a prolonged time, the increase in mitotic activity and shortened turnover time will result in an abnormally thick stratum corneum and development of callus. Normally about 10% to 12% of all cells in the stratum basal enter mitosis each day.

 Area between the epidermis and dermis. The junction glues the 2 layers together and provides mechanical support for the epidermis. Partial barrier for passage of some cells and large molecules. Any detachment of large area of epidermis from dermis is an extremely serious condition that may result in death.

DERMAL-EPIDERMAL JUNCTION

DERMIS
Deeper and thicker layer. Derived from mesoderm. Dense and vascular connective tissue layer Thickness 4mm Thinnest on eyelids and penis where thickness is about 0.5mm. - Provide mechanical strength to skin. -A specialized network of nerves and nerve endings in dermis is called as somatic sensory receptors, which gives the sensory information such as pain, pressure touch and temperature. - It is rich in vascular supply. -Plays important role in regulation of body temperature. -

PAPILLARY LAYER
Superficial layer of dermis forms bumps called dermis papillae, that projects into epidermis. Composed of loose connective tissue. Fine network of thin collagenous and elastic fibers.

RETICULAR LAYER
Consists of dense reticulum or network of fibers. Most of the fibers are of collagenous type which gives the toughness to skin. Elastic fibers are also present. It is point of attachment for skeletal & smooth muscle fibers It helps in giving facial expression & voluntary movement of scalp. In this area arrector pili muscles are present, Contraction of these muscle make the hair stand on end-as in extreme fear & cold we called it as Goosebumps.

DERMAL GROWTH AND REPAIR

Dermis does not continually shed and regenerate. In wound healing, the regeneration of dermis takes. In dermis, fibroblast quickly reproduce & form dense mass of new connective tissue fiber. If the dense mass is not replaced by normal tissue, it remain as a scar. If the elastic fibers in the dermis are stretched too much these fibers will weaken & tear that will result as a stretch marks

Physiology of Skin
 PROTECTIVE FUNCTIONS Skin forms the covering of all the organs of the body & protects these organs from the following factors:  Bacteria and toxic substances.  Mechanical blow.  U.V. rays.

Protection from Bacteria and Toxic Substances

 Skin covers the organs of the body

and protects the organs from having direct

 The

contact keratinized

with stratum

external corneum

environment. layer of epidermis is responsible for the protective function of skin. This layer also offers resistance to the skin against toxic chemicals like acids and alkalies.

Protection from Mechanical Blow

 The skin is not tightly placed over

the underlying organs or tissues.

 It is some what loose and moves

over the underlying subcutaneous tissues. So the mechanical impact of any blow to the skin is not transmitted tissues. to the underlying

Protection from U.V. Rays.

Exposure to sunlight causes increased production of melanin pigment in skin. This absorb U.V. rays. At the same time the thickness of stratum corneum is increased. This layer also absorbs U.V. rays.

General sensation
Skin is considered as the largest sense organ in the body. It has many nerve endings which are specialized to form cutaneous receptors .

These receptors are stimulated by the sensation of touch, pain, pressure or temperature sensations and convey these sensations to the brain via afferent nerves.

Storage
 The dermis as well as the subcutaneous tissue can store fats, water ,salts, glucose and such other substances.  It can also store the blood by the dilation of blood vessels.

Vitamin D production
The first step in the production of vitamin D in the body occurs when the skin in exposed to U.V. light. 7- dehydrocholestrol Cholecalciferol ( Vit D3 ) 25- hydroxyl cholecalciferol 1,25-hydroxycholecalciferol Active form

Excretion
 Through sweat and insensible perspiration, salts and metabolites are excreted to some extent.  Excess sweating may lead to low blood Na levels (hyponatremia)

Secretion
 Sweat  Sebum

Absorption
 Water absorption causing swelling of
the stratum corneum.  Lipids are easily permeable to skin like vitamins.  Some drugs in transdermal patchs eg. Hormone replacement therapy during the menopause  Some toxic chemicals eg. mercury

FLEXIBILITY
 Skin grows as we grow& exhibits stretch & recoil characteristics that permit changes in body contours to occur without tearing or lacerations.  For the movement of the body to occur without injury ,the skin must be elastic.

IMMUNITY
 The epidermis contains specialised immune cells called LANGERHANS CELLS.  They phagocytose interdusing Antigens & travel to lymphoid tissue where they present Antigen to T-lymphocytes thus stimulating an immune response.

REGULATION OF BODY TEMPERATURE  A Set point of body temp. is 37c

. It may increase to 37.6C by late afternoon & decrease to 36.2C by early morning.  The homeostatic regulation of body

temp. in two ways:  By liberating sweat at its surface  By adjusting the flow of blood in dermis

HEAT PRODUCTION
BY MEANS OF Metabolism of foods During exercise Shivering

HEAT LOSS
 Heat loss can be regulated by altering the flow of blood in the skin .  If heat must be conserved, dermal blood vessels constrict to keep the warm blood circulating in body.  Heat can be transferred to the external environment through the physical process

EVAPORATION
 Evaporation of water constitute one method by which heat is lost from the body, especially from the body

RADIATION

Heat radiate from the body surface to nearby object that are cooler than skin. CONDUCTION  Conduction means the transfer of heat to any substance actually in contact with the body; To clothing or jewelry, Even to cold foods.

CONVECTION
 It is transfer of heat away from a surface by movement of heated air or fluid particles. For examples:-If you have ever stepped from your shower into even slightly moving air from an open window.

HOMEOSTATIC REGULATION OF HEAT LOSS

 Temperature receptors in a part of the brain called Hypothalamus detect changes in the body the bodys internal temperature. Above the set point i.e. 370 C.  The hypothalamus acts as an integrator and sends a nervous signal to the sweat glands and blood vessels of the skin.  Sweat glands increase their output sweat and blood vessels increase their diameter.

Skin Color
 Melanin: The main determinant of skin color is the quantity of the melanin deposited in the cells of the epidermis.  Two groups of melanin are made by the melanocytes of the body.  Eumelanin: true black substance.  Pheomelanin: dusky back substance.

FACTORS AFFECTING SKIN COLOR

GENES prolonged exposure to sunlight Melanocytes synthesis of melanin type & quality of melanin deposited in epidermis Unoxgen. Hb skin color vol. Of blood ACTH

Functions of skin
Function Protection Example From microorganism From dehydration From u.v. rays From mechanical trauma PainHeat & coldPressureTouch Mechanism Surface film/ mechanical barrier. Keratin Melanin Tissue strength Somatic sensory receptors.

Sensation Permit movement and growth without injury Endocorine

Elastic and recoil Body growth and change in body contours properties of skin and subcutaneous tissue. during movements Vitamin D production Activation of precursor compound in skin cell by U.V. rays

Excretion Immunity Temperature regulation

WaterUreaAmmoniaUric Regulation of sweat volume and content acid Destruction of microbes Phagocytic cells and langerhans cells Heat loss or retention Regulation of blood flow to skin and evaporation of sweat.

Thank You