Survey Research

Content
1. 2. 3. 4. Introduction Purpose Sampling Methods of data collection
Interviews Observation Schedule Questionnaire

5. Other methods of data collection

Panel research Warranty cards Pantry audit and consumer panel Mechanical devices Projective techniques Sociometry

1. Introduction
Typically, surveys gather data at a particular point in time with the intention of describing the nature of existing conditions, or identifying standards against which existing conditions can be compared, or determining the relationships that exist between specific events.

Thus, surveys may vary in their levels of complexity from those which provide simple frequency counts to those which present relational analysis.

2. Sampling
The quality of a piece of research not only stands or falls by the appropriateness of methodology and instrumentation but also by the suitability of the sampling strategy that has been adopted. Researchers must take sampling decisions early in the overall planning of a piece of research. Questions of sampling arise directly out of the issue of defining the population on which the research will focus.

 Factors such as expense, time and accessibility frequently prevent researchers from gaining information from the whole population. Therefore they often need to be able to obtain data from a smaller group or subset of the total population in such a way that the knowledge gained is representative of the total population (however defined) under study. This smaller group or subset is the sample.

3.1 Sampling Questions

Judgments have to be made about four key factors in sampling: 1. the sample size; 2. the representativeness and parameters of the sample; 3. access to the sample; 4. the sampling strategy to be used.

4. Methods of Data Collection

The intention of understanding this topic is to enable researchers to decide on the most appropriate instruments for data collection, and to design such instruments. The strengths and weaknesses of these instruments must be understood, so that informed decisions can be taken on their suitability and avoid being arbitrary. The criterion of fitness for purpose should be held high. With reference to each instrument the purpose is to ensure that researchers can devise appropriate data collection instruments for themselves, and are aware of the capabilities of such instruments to provide useful and usable data.

4.0 Types of Data

Primary Data
Are those data which are collected a fresh and for the first time, and thus happen to be original in character

Secondary Data
Are those data which have already been collected by someone else for some other purpose

The researcher would have to decide which sort of data he or she would be using (thus collecting) for the purpose of the study and accordingly will have to select one or the other method of data collection.

4.1 Observation Method

Most commonly used method specially in behavioral sciences We all observe things around us, but this sort of observation is not scientific observation. Observation becomes a scientific tool and a method of data collection when it:
Serves a formulated research purpose Is systematically planned and recorded And is subjected to checks and controls on validity and reliability

Under this method, the information is sought by way of investigator s own direct observation with or without asking the subject for their permission.
Eg. A study relating to consumer behavior.

Advantages of Observation
1. 2. Subjective bias is eliminated, is observation is done accurately The information obtained under this method relates to what is currently happening; it is not complicated by either the past behavior or future intentions or attitudes. This method is independent of respondents willingness to respond and as such is relatively less demanding of active cooperation on the part of respondents as happens to the case in the interview or the questionnaire method. This method is particularly suitable for studies that deal with subjects (i.e., prospective respondents) who are not capable of giving verbal or written reports of their feelings for some reason.

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Limitations of Observation
It is an expensive method Information provided by this method is very limited In some cases, the data is open to subjective interpretation especially if carried out in uncontrolled environment.

Using Observation Effectively

While using this method, the researcher should keep in mind things like:
What should be observed How the observation should be recorded How the accuracy of observation can be ensured

Structured versus Unstructured Observation

Structured Observation
When the observation is characterized by:
a careful definition of the units to be observed, the style of recording the observed information, standardized conditions of observation and the selection of pertinent data of observation

Unstructured Observation
When observation takes place without the above mentioned characteristics

Participant versus Non-participant Observation

The distinction between the two depends upon the observer s sharing or not sharing the life of the group he or she is observing.
If the observer observes by making himself, more or less, a member of the group he is observing so that he can experience what the members of the group experience, the observation is called as the participant observation. But when the observer observes as a detached person without any attempt on his part to experience through participation what others feel the observation of this type is often termed as non-participant observation. When the observer is observing in such a manner that his or her presence may be unknown to the people he or she is observing, such an observation is described as disguised observation.

Controlled versus Uncontrolled Observation

If the observation takes place in the natural setting, it may be termed as uncontrolled observation, but when observation takes place according to definite pre-arranged plans, involving experimental procedure, the same is then termed controlled observation. In non-controlled observation, no attempt is made to use precision instruments. The major objective of this type of data collection method is to get a spontaneous picture of life and persons. In controlled observation, we use mechanical (or precision) instruments as aids to accuracy and standardization.

4.2 Interview Method

The interview method of data collection involves presentation of oral-verbal stimuli and reply in terms of oral-verbal responses. Could be carried out in person or over the telephone. Interviews could be:
Structured Unstructured Semi-structured

Advantages of Interview
More information and that too in greater depth can be obtained Interviewer by his or her own skills can overcome the resistance to abstain from responding by the respondents. There is greater flexibility to restructure or reframe questions specially in case of unstructured interviews. Observation method can be used in conjunction with the interview method The language can be adapted to the ability or educational level of the person being interviewed. The interviewer can collect supplementary information about the respondent s personal characteristics and environment which is often of great value in interpreting results.

Weaknesses of Interview
It is a very expensive method, specially when large and widely spread geographical sample is taken. Suffers from interviewer bias. Certain categories of people may not be accessible for information through this method. Relatively more time consuming. Presence of the interviewer may influence the responses of the respondents. The interviewers need to be trained in the art of interviewing.

4.3 Questionnaire
The questionnaire is a widely used and useful instrument for collecting survey information, providing structured, often numerical data, being able to be administered without the presence of the researcher, and often being comparatively straightforward to analyze. These attractions are counterbalanced by the time taken to develop, pilot and refine the questionnaire,

Advantages of Questionnaire
Low cost as compared to interview method even when the sampling frame is large and geographically wide spread. It is free from the interviewer s bias as the answers are selfreported by the respondents. Respondents have adequate time to give well thought out answers. Respondents who are not easily approachable may be approached through a mailed questionnaire. Can be circulated to a large sample.

Demerits of Questionnaire
Low rate of return of the duly filled in questionnaires Can be used only with educated respondents Suffers from part non-response and incomplete responses. It is difficult to establish whether willing respondents are truly representative. Consumes lot of time with respect to follow-up on sent questionnaires

4.4 Data Collection Through Schedules

This method of data collection is very similar to the questionnaire method of data collection but with a litter difference. The difference: schedules (proforma containing a set of questions) are filled in by the enumerators who are especially appointed for this purpose. These enumerators along with schedules, go to respondents, put to them the questions from the proforma in the order the questions are listed and record the replies in the space meant for the same in the proforma.

 This method of data collection is very useful in extensive enquires and can lead to fairly reliable results. It is, however, very expensive and is usually adopted in investigations conducted by government agencies or by some big organizations. Population census all over the world is conducted through this method. Difference between questionnaire and schedules as a method of data collection.

5. Some Other Methods of Data Collection

5.1 Consumer Panel
In some cases, these are also referred to as consumer panels where a set of consumers are arranged to come to an understanding to maintain detailed daily records of their consumption and the same is made available to the investigators on demand. In other words, a consumer panel is essentially a sample of consumers who are interviewed repeatedly over a period of time. Mostly consumer panels are of two types: Transitory and continuing Immersive research e.g., P&G (switched from focus groups) an indepth methodology that captures customer experiences and emotions as they unfold.

Transitory Versus Continuing Consumer Panels

Transitory Consumer Panel:
Is set up to measure the effect of a particular phenomenon. Usually such a panel is conducted on a before-and-after basis. Initial interviews are conducted before the phenomenon takes place to record the attitude of the consumer A second set of interviews is carried out after the phenomenon has taken place to find out the consequent changes that might have occurred in the consumer s attitude. Generally used in advertising

 Continuing Consumer Panel:

Are often set up for an indefinite period with the view to collect data on a particular aspect of consumer behavior over time, generally at periodic intervals or may be meant to serve as a general purpose panel for researchers on a variety of subjects. Used for TV viewership

Problems with consumer panels

The representativeness of the panel relative to the population The effect of panel membership on the information provided

5.2 Warranty Cards

Warranty cards are usually postal sized cards which are used by dealers of consumer durables to collect information regarding their products. The information sought is printed in the form of questions on the warranty cards which is placed inside the package along with the product with a request to the consumer to fill in the card and post it back to the dealer.

5.3 Pantry Audit

Pantry audit techniques is used to estimate consumption of the basket of goods at the consumer level. In this type of audit, the investigator collects an inventory of types, quantities and prices of commodities consumed. Thus in pantry audit data are recorded from the examination of consumers pantry. The usual objective in a pantry audit is to find out what types of consumers buy certain products and certain brands, the assumption being that the contents of the pantry accurately portray consumer s preferences.

 Quite often, pantry audits are supplemented by direct questioning relating to reasons and circumstances under which particular products were purchased in an attempt to relate these factors to purchasing habits. A pantry audit may or may not be set up as a panel operation, since a single visit is often considered sufficient to yield an accurate picture of consumers preferences.

5.4 Mechanical Devices

The use of mechanical devices is done to collect information by means of indirect means. Eye camera, Pupilometric camera, Psychogalvanometer, Motion picture camera, etc. are some of the devices used by modern business houses mostly in the developed countries for the purpose of collecting the required information.

Mechanical Devices
Eye cameras are designed to record the focus of eyes of a person on a specific portion of a image or written material this information is useful in designing advertising material. Pupilometric cameras record dilation of the pupil as a result of visual stimulus. The extent of dilation shows the degree of interest aroused by the stimulus. Psychogalvanometer is used for measuring the extent of body excitement as a result of visual stimulus. Motion picture cameras can be used to record movement of body of a buyer while deciding to buy a product.

5.5 Projective Techniques

Projective techniques (or what are sometimes called as indirect interviewing techniques) for the collection of data have been developed by psychologists to use projections of respondents for inferring about underlying motives, urges, or intentions which are such that the respondent either resists to reveal them or is unable to figure out himself or herself. In projective techniques the respondent n supplying information tends unconsciously to project his own attitudes or feelings on the subject under study. Projective techniques play an important role in motivational research.

 The use of these techniques requires intensive specialized training. In such techniques, the individual s responses to stimulussituation are not taken at their face value. The stimulus may be a photograph, a picture, an inkblot and so on. Responses to these stimuli are interpreted as indicating the individual s own view, his or her personality structure, needs, tensions, etc. in the context of some pre-established psychological conceptualization of what the individual s responses to the stimulus mean.

Some Important Projective Techniques

Word association tests
These tests are used to extract information regarding such words which have maximum association. In this sort of test the respondent is asked to mention the first word that comes to mind, ostensibly without thinking, as the interviewer reads out each word from a list. E.g., toothpaste

Sentence completion tests

These tests happen to be an extension of the technique of word association tests. Under this, respondents may be asked to complete a sentence (such as, People who drink black coffee are ) to find association between objects and personality characteristics.

 Story completion tests

Such tests are a step further wherein the researcher may contrive stories instead of sentences and ask the respondents to complete them.

Pictorial techniques
There are several pictorial techniques. The important ones are:
Thematic Appreciation Test (TAT): It consists of a set of pictures that are shown to respondents who are asked to describe what they think the pictures represent. The replies of respondents constitute the basis for the investigator to draw inferences about their personality structure, attitude, etc. Rorschach ink blot test: This test consists of ten cards having prints of inkblots. The design happens to be symmetrical but meaningless. The respondents are asked to describe what they perceive in such symmetrical inkblots and the responses are interpreted on the basis of some pre-determined psychological framework.

5.6 Sociometry
Sociometry is a technique for describing the social relationships among individuals in a group. Under this an attempt is made to trace the flow of information amongst group members. Sociograms are constructed to identify leaders and followers. Sociograms are charts that depict the sociometric choices of the group members.

End of Survey Research

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