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Data
Signal
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Periodic Signals
Some signals repeat themselves over fixed intervals of time. Such signals are said to be periodic A signal s(t) is periodic if and only if: s(t+T) = s(t) -g < t < +g where the constant T is the periodic of the signal, otherwise a signal is aperiodic (or non- periodic).
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Transmission Impairments
Attenuation Delay Noise
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Attenuation
Loss of signal strength over distance Use of amplifiers to boost analog signals; entire signal (including noise or distortion) is amplified Use of repeaters for digital data; data recovered and then transmitted
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Attenuation Distortion
Analog signal is made up of several frequencies Attenuation is different for different frequencies; Different losses at different frequencies More of a problem for analog signals than digital
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Attenuation
Attenuation the strength of a signal falls off with distance Attenuation Distortion attenuation varies as a function of frequency
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dB Calculation
Example
Input power is 1 Watt Output power is 1 mW dB Attenuation is 10 * log (1 W/1 mW) = 10 * (3) = 30 dB
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Use of Repeaters
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Delay Distortion
The velocity of propagation of a signal through a guided medium varies with frequency. Different frequency components travel at different speeds therefore arrive at a destination at different times. Particularly critical for digital data because bits may spill over causing Inter-Symbol Interference.
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Noise
What is Noise?
Any unwanted signal
Types of Noise
Thermal Intermodulation Impulse Crosstalk
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Thermal Noise
Thermal noise, white noise
Due to random motion of atoms N = kTW k = Boltzman Constant (1.381 X 10-23 J/K) T = Absolute Temperature (Kelvin) W = Bandwidth (Hz) Why is it called White Noise?
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Inter-modulation Noise
Inter-modulation noise
when two signals at different frequencies are mixed in the same medium, sum or difference of original frequencies or multiples of those frequencies can be produced, which can interfere with the intended signal - occurs when there is some non-linearity in the system
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Noise
Crosstalk
when there is an unwanted coupling between signal paths. For example some times talking on the telephone you can hear another conversation.
Impulse noise
Due to lightning or some other random transient phenomenon
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Effect of Noise
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Atmospheric Absorption
Attenuation caused by water vapor and oxygen Water vapor: High around 22 GHz, less around 15 GHz Oxygen: High around 60 GHz, less below 30 GHz
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Refraction
Radio waves get bent by change in speed with altitude
Thermal Noise
White noise. Important factor for satellite communications
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Channel Capacity
The rate at which digital data can be transmitted over a given communication channel Two formulations
Shannon s Formulation Nyquist Formulation
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Shannons Law
Considers the noise (only white noise) Key parameter is signal-to-noise ratio (S/N, or SNR), which is the ratio of the power in a signal to the power contained in the noise, typically measured at the receiver often expressed in decibels Maximum theoretical error-free capacity in bits per second C = W log2 (1+S/N)
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Nyquist Limit
Nyquist limit (in a noise-free environment) C = 2 W log2M Given a bandwidth of W, highest signal rate that can be carried is 2W with binary signaling (M=2) For multilevel signaling C = 2W log2M where M is the number of discrete signals or voltage levels
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Analog Transmission
Analog signal transmitted without regard to content May be analog or digital data Attenuated over distance Use amplifiers to boost signal Also amplifies noise
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Digital Transmission
Concerned with content Integrity endangered by noise, attenuation etc. Repeaters are used Repeater receives signal Extracts bit pattern Retransmits Attenuation is overcome Noise is not amplified
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Use of Repeaters
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