Some elements in the history of Arab mathematics

Mahdi ABDELJAOUAD

From arithmetic to algebra Part 1

Summary
Introduction Domains studied by Arabs Arithmetic and number theory Algebra Conclusion

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Quick Chronology of Islam

622 : First year of Arabic Calendar 632 : Death of Mohamed, the Prophet 633 640 : conquest of Syria and Mesopotamia 639 646 : conquest of Egypt. 687 702 : conquest of North Africa. 701 716 : conquest of Spain (Andalusia). 640 750 : Reign of the Ommayads (Damascus) 762 1258 : Reign the Abbassids. (Baghdad) 1055 : Turks take over Baghdad 1258 : Mongols take over Baghdad. 1492 : Christians take over Grenada and arrive in America.
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From 750 up to 900

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From 900 up to 1000

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From 1100 up to 1300

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From 1300 up to 1500

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Subjects studied by Arab mathematicians

Geometry : Thabit ibn Qurra Omar al-Khayyam Ibn al-Haytham. Sciences of numbers 1. Indian numeration : al-Uqludisi. 2. Business arithmetic : Abu l-Wafa. 3. Algebra : al-Khawarizmi 4. Decimal numbers : al-Kashi 5. Combinatorics : Ibn al-Muncim Trigonometry : Nasir ad-Dine at-Tusi Astronomy : al-Biruni Science of music : al-Farabi.
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Science of numbers

al arithmtika and cIlm al-hisb

The first one is speculative or theoretical and is interested to abstract numbers and to pytagorical and euclidian arithmetic.
The second one is active or practical and is interested to concrete numbers and to the needs of merchants.

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Speculative arithmetic

Inspired from Aristotle philosophy Two approaches : 1. Euclids Elements Books VII VIII and IX 2. Pythagoras through Nicomachus of Gerases Introduction to Arithmetic.

Thabit ibn Qurra (d.901) Bagdad (a star worshipper)

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Types of active arithmetic

1 . Al-hisb al-hawi (air calculus)

Based solely on memory Rethorical calculus uses only words in the text and no symbols. It is digital : calculus uses fingers to compute and to do operations. It uses unitary and sexagesimal fractions How to solve problems: rule of three algebra A chapter on geometric mensurations A great number of practical problems
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Abu'l-Wafa (d.998) Bagdad Book on what Is necessary from the science of arithmetic for scribes and businessmen This book : ... comprises all that an experienced or novice, subordinate or chief in arithmetic needs to know, the art of civil servants, the employment of land taxes and all kinds of business needed in administrations, proportions, multiplication, division, measurements, land taxes, distribution, exchange and all other practices used by various categories of men for doing business and which are useful to them in their daily life.
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Abu'l-Wafa (d.998) Bagdad Part I: On ratio. Part II: Arithmetical operations (integers and fractions). Part III: Mensuration (area of figures, volume of solids and finding distances). Part IV: On taxes (different kinds of taxes and problems of tax calculations). Part V: On exchange and shares (types of crops, and problems relating to their value and exchange). Part VI: Miscellaneous topics (units of money, payment of soldiers, the granting and withholding of permits for ships on the river, merchants on the roads). Part VII: Further business topics.
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Arab fractions Arab fractions are those used before them by Egyptians. These are unit fractions or capital fractions whose numerator is always 1. In Ancient Egypt, they were indicated by placing an oval over the number representing the denominator.

1/3 is noted :

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Arab fractions
One half One third One fourth One tenth

All computations have to be described by the means of unit fractions. You will not say Five-sixth (5/6) but One third plus one half (1/3 of )

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Types of active arithmetic

2 . Hisb as-sittne (Sexagesimal calculus)

Originated in Babylon 2000 B.C. adopted by Greeks and Indians. Base 60 for all fractions Alphabetical numeration : It uses letters of Arabic alphabet for numbers from 1 to 59 . For example : 1 = ; = 31 ; = 7 ; = 3 ; = 2 ; 27 = . Indian numeration : It uses Arabic numerals from 1 to 59, and also 0 in medial position.
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Kushiyar Ibn Labban al-Gili (d.1024) Bagdad Book on fundaments of Indian calculus

... These fundaments are sufficient for all who need to compute in Astronomy, and also for all exchanges between all the people in the world.

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Alphabetical numeration
9 91 92 93 94 95 8 81 82 83 84 85 7 71 72 73 74 75 6 61 62 63 64 65 5 51 52 53 54 55 4 41 42 43 44 45 3 31 32 33 34 35 2 21 22 23 24 25 1 11 12 13 14 15

0 01 02 03 04 05

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Types of active arithmetic

3 . Hisb al-Hind (Hindu arithmetic)

place-value system of numerals based on 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 0. Only whole positive numbers It uses a dust board (Takht - Ghubar) You have to continually erase, change and replace parts of the calculation as the computing progresses.

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Al-Uqludisi (around 952) Bagdad Book on parts of Indian calculus

Most arithmeticians are obliged to use [Hindu arithmetic] in their work: - it is easy and immediate, - requires little memorisation, - provides quick answers, - demands little thought

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Al-Uqludisi (around 952) Bagdad ... Therefore, we say that it is a science and practice that requires a tool, such as a writer, an artisan, a knight needs to conduct their affairs; since if the artisan has difficulty in finding what he needs for his trade, he will never succeed; to grasp it there is no difficulty, impossibility or preparation.

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Al-Uqludisi (around 952) Bagdad Official scribes nevertheless avoid using [the Indian system] because it requires equipment [like a dust board] and they consider that a system that requires nothing but the members of the body is more secure and more fitting to the dignity of a leader.

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How Fractions are represented ?

Mathematicians from Baghdad and Egypt have used Hindis way of denoting fractions : they place the integral part above the numerator and the numerator above the denominator. The number 26/7 is denoted vertically Integral part Numerator 3 5

Denominator 7
with no lines separating the vertical numbers.

Mathematicians from Andalousia and North Africa have invented the separation line between numerator and denominator. (around the XIIth Century)
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An arithmetic textbook in 1300

Ibn al-Banna (1256-1321) Marrakech Lifting the veil on parts of calculus
Introduction : Number theory unity place-values signification of fraction as a ratio between two numbers
1. Whole numbers : Addition - summing series Substraction Multiplication Division. Fractions : Different ways of representing and operating on them. Operations. Irrationnals : Operations Square roots. 2. Proportions : Rule of three Solving problems by using method of the balance (al-kaff'ayan) 3. Solving problems by using method of algebra.
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Arab algebra M. ibn Musa Al-Khwrizmi (780 - 850 Bagdad)

Kitab al-Jabr wal muqbala

... what is easiest and most useful in arithmetic, such as men constantly require in cases of inheritance, legacies, partition, lawsuits, and trade, and in all their dealings with one another, or where the measuring of lands, the digging of canals, geometrical computations, and other objects of various sorts and kinds are concerned.

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The name Algebra is a Latin translation of an Arab word : al-Jabr This word is a part of the title of the first textbook presenting equations and treating how to solve them : Kitab al-Jabr wal muqabala written by al-Khwarizmi (780-850).
Algorithmus is a Latin transcription of his name
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al-Jabr :

31x - 2x + 40 = 21x then 31x + 40 = 19x

al-Muqbala : 10x + 3x + 4 = 15x + 2x + 1

then x + 3 = 5x Shay : the thing or the unknown. Today, it is denoted x Ml : It is the multiplication of Shay by Shay . In fact it is the square of the unknown. Today it is denoted x . Equation x + 3 = 5x is read in Arabic : Shay plus three equal five Ml
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Six classes of equations

5. 6. Ml equal Shay : 3x = 5x. Ml equal numbers : 8x = 127. Shay equal numbers : 89x = 4. Ml and Shay equal numbers : 45x + 12x = 5. Ml and numbers equal Shay : 3x + 7 = 2x. Shay and numbers equal Ml : 100x + 2 = x

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Ml and Shay equal numbers

x + px = q
Take half the roots , that is p/2 , half of p. Multiply it by itself, that is (p/2) x (p/2) Add to it the number, that is q Take the square roots of the result Subtract from it half the roots : It is what you are looking for

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x + 10x = 64

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Development of algebra
M. ibn Musa Al-Khwrizmi (780 - 850 Baghdad) : India
abu-Kmil (d.950 Egypt) : al-Khwarizmi + Euclide

al-Karji (born 953 Baghdad - 1029) : al-Khwarizmi + abuKamil + Euclide + Diophante

As-Samawal (1130 Baghdad - 1180 Iran) : al-Karaji

Omar al-Khayyam (1048 - 1131 Iran) : Euclide

Sharaf ad-Din at-Tusi (1135 - 1213 Iran) : Khayyam Euclide

Ibn al-Banna (1256 1321 Marrakech)

Ibn al-Him (1352 Cairo 1412 Jerusalem)
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Arab algebra Abu Kmil (850 - 930 Egypt) Kitab al-Kamil fil Jabr (i) On the solution of quadratic equations, (ii) On applications of algebra to the regular pentagon and decagon, and (iii)On Diophantine equations and problems of recreational mathematics. The content of the work is the application of algebra to geometrical problems. Methods in this book are a combination of the geometric methods developed by the Greeks together with the practical methods developed by al-Khwarizmi mixed with Babylonian methods.
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Arab algebra Al-Karji (953 Bagdad - 1029) Kitab al-Fakhri and Kitab al-Badic fil Jabr He gives rules for the arithmetic operations including (essentially) the multiplication of polynomials. He usually gives a numerical example for his rules but does not give any sort of proof beyond giving geometrical pictures. He explicitely says that he is giving a solution in the style of Diophantus. He does not treat equations above the second degree. The solutions of quadratics are based explicitly on the Euclidean theorems
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Arab algebra As-Samawal al-Maghribi (1130 Baghdad - 1180 Iran) al-Bhir fil hisb (i) Definition of powers x, x2, x3, ... , x-1, x-2, x-3, ... . Addition, subtraction, multiplication and division of polynomials. Extraction of the roots of polynomials. (ii) Theory of linear and quadratic equations, with geometric proofs of all algorithmic solutions. Binomial theorem Triangle of Pascal. Use of induction. (iii)Arithmetic of the irrationals. n applications of algebra to the regular pentagon and decagon, and (iv)Classification of problems into necessary problems, possible problems and impossible problems .
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Arab algebra Omar al-Khayyam (1048 - 1131 Iran) Risala fil Jabr wal muqabala (Treatise on Algebra and muqabala)

He starts by showing that the problem : (1) Find a right triangle having the property that the hypothenuse equals the sum of one leg plus the altitude on the hypotenuse. (2) x3 + 200x = 20x2 + 2000 (3) He founds a positive root of this cubic by considering the intersection of a rectangular hyperbola and a circle. (4) He then gives approximate numerical solution by interpolation in trigonometric tables.
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Arab algebra Omar al-Khayym (1048 - 1131 Iran) Treatise on Algebra and muqabala

Complete classification of cubic equations with geometric solutions found by means of intersecting conic sections He demonstrates the existence of cubic equations having two solutions, but unfortunately he does not appear to have found that a cubic can have three solutions. What historians consider as more remarkable is the fact that Omar al-Khayyam has stated that these equations cannot be solved by ruler and compas methods, a result which would not be proved for another 750 years.
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Arab algebra Sharaf ad-Din at-Tusi (1135 - 1213 Iran) Treatise on equations In the treatise equations of degree at most three are divided into 25 types : twelve types of equation of degree at most two, eight types of cubic equation which always have a positive solution, then five types which may have no positive solution. The method which al-Tusi used is geometrical. He proves that the cubic equation bx x3 = a has a positive root if its discriminant D = b3/27 - a2/4 > 0 or = 0. For all cubic equations he approximates the root of the cubic equation.
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An algebra textbook in 1387

Ibn al-Him (1352 Cairo 1412 Jerusalem)
Sharh al-Urjuza al-yasminiya fil Jabr
Introduction : Terminology 1. The six canonical equations : Definitions solutions numerical examples. (All proofs are algebraic with no geometrical arguments.)

2. The arithmetic of polynomials.

3. The arithmetic of irrationnels Summing series of integers. 4. How to abord a problem and solve it. 5. Solutions of algebraic numerical problems : (1) with rational coefficients (2) with irrational coefficients.
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North African Symbols

al-Hassr (around 1150 in Andalousia or in Morocco): al-Kitab al-Kamil fi al-hisab. (Complete book of calculus) Ibn al-Ysamine (d.1204) (Andalousia and Morocco) : His didactical poem (Urjuza) was learned by hart by all pupils up the the XIXth century . al-Qalasdi (born in Andalousia - dead in Tunisia in 1486) He wrote arithmetical and algebra textbooks.

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An equation written in symbols

"Ml plus seven Shay equal eight " x + 7x = 8.

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Conclusion

Arab mathematics had started by translations of Greek , Indian, Syriac and Persian works. All this knowledge has been integrated in Arab culture with Arab words and thinking. Men of different cultures and regions of the world, independently from their races and religions - They worked together in Baghdad, Cairo, Cordoba, Marrakech or in Tunis - They invented new mathematics and wrote treatises and textbooks used elsewhere. - Their contributions to mathematics were known here in Sicilia and transferred to Latin and Italian languages.
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References
Storia della Scienza Enciclopedia Italiana Vol. III, 2002 on the web In English :

www-history.mcs.standrews.ac.uk/history/ HistTopics/Arabic_mathematics.html
In French :

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