ANTENNA BASICS

Introduction
An antenna is an electrical conductor or system of

conductors
Transmission - radiates electromagnetic energy into space Reception - collects electromagnetic energy from space

In two-way communication, the same antenna can be used

for transmission and reception

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Electrical properties
Operation Frequency Band Input impedance VSWR Polarization Gain Radiation Pattern Horizontal/Vertical beamwidth

Downtilt
Front/back ratio Sidelobe suppression and null filling

Frequency Range

GSM 900 : 890-960MHz GSM 1800 : 1710-1880MHz GSM dual band : 890-960MHz & 1710-1880MHz eg.824-960MHz1710-1900MHz

Optimum 1/2 wavelength for dipole at 925MHz

at 890 MHz

at 960 MHz Antenna Dipole

BANDWIDTH = 960 - 890 = 70MHz

Dipoles
Wavelength 1/4 Wavelength 1/2 Wavelength 1/4 Wavelength 1/2 Wavelength Dipole 1800MHz 166mm 900MHz 333mm

Impedance

50
Antenna Cable 50 ohms 50 ohms

VSWR
Forward: 10W

50 ohms
Backward: 0.5W

80 ohms

9.5 W

Return Loss 10log(10/0.5) = 13dB

1. Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR) or sometimes just Standing Wave Ratio (SWR) is a measure of how well matched an antenna is (in terms of impedance) to the transmission line it connects to.

2. If the reflection coefficient is given by T, then the VSWR is defined as:

3. The VSWR is always a real and positive number for passive (non-powered) loads, as in generally the case. 4. The smaller the VSWR is, the better the antenna is matched to the transmission line and the more power is delivered to the antenna. The minimum VSWR=1.0, in which case none of the power is reflected, which is the ideal case. More: http://www.antenna-theory.com/definitions/vswr.php

*. In particular, at a discontinuity in a transmission line, it is the complex ratio of the electric field strength of the reflected wave (E ) to that of the incident wave (E + ). This is typically represented with a (capital gamma) and can be written as:

*. The reflection coefficient can be given by the equations below, where ZS is the impedance toward the source, ZL is the impedance toward the load:

Polarization
Polarization is the direction of the electric field and is the

same as the physical attitude of the antenna

A vertical antenna will transmit a vertically polarized wave

The receive and transmit antennas need to possess the

same polarization

Polarization
Electric Field

Vertical

Horizontal

+ 45degree slant

- 45degree slant

V/H (Vertical/Horizontal)

Slant (+/- 45)

Antenna Gain
Antenna gain is the measure in dB how much more power an antenna will radiate in a certain direction with respect to that which would be radiated by a reference antenna.

Antenna gain Power output, in a particular direction, compared to that produced in any direction by a perfect omni directional antenna (isotropic antenna) Effective area Related to physical size and shape of antenna

Antenna Gain
Relationship between antenna gain and effective area

4Ae

4f Ae c2
2

G = antenna gain Ae = effective area f = carrier frequency c = speed of light ( 3 108 m/s) = carrier wavelength

Effective Radiated Power (ERP)

ERP is the power input value and the gain of the

antenna multiplied together

dBi = isotropic radiator gain dBd = dipole antenna gain

1 dipole
(received power)1mW

Multiple dipole matrix

Received power4 mW

GAIN= 10log(4mW/1mW) = 6dBd

Antenna
(Overlook

Omnidirectional array Received power1mW

Sector antenna Received power8mW

Gain=10log(8mW/1mW) = 9dBi

Radiation Pattern

Radiation Pattern
Radiation pattern is an indication of radiated field

strength around the antenna. Power radiated from a /2 dipole occurs at right angles to the antenna with no power emitting from the ends of the antenna. Optimum signal strength occurs at right angles or 180 from opposite the antenna

Radiation Patterns
Radiation pattern
Graphical representation of radiation properties of an

antenna Depicted as two-dimensional cross section

Beam width (or half-power beam width)

Measure of directivity of antenna

Reception pattern
Receiving antennas equivalent to radiation pattern

Radiation Pattern for Vertical Antennas /4

/2

antenna

Antenna patterns.
*. Radiates or receive equally well in all directions. *. The key factor to note is that for receivers all four signals (or signals from any direction, for that matter) are received equally well.

*. The directivity of an antenna is a statement of how the RF energy is focused in one or two directions. Because the amount of RF energy remains the same, but is distributed over less area, the apparent signal strength is higher. This apparent increase in signal strength is the antenna gain. *. There are two preferred directions (maxima) and two null directions (minima).

*. Figure 3 shows a unidirectional pattern such as found on Yagi and quad beams and certain other antennas.

*. The main lobe is the direction of maximum radiation or reception. In addition to the main lobe, there are also sidelobes and backlobes. These lobes represent lost energy so good antenna designs attempt to minimize them. In the unidirectional antenna pattern, signals "A", "C" and "D" are suppressed, while signal "B" is maximized.
*. The beamwidth of the antenna is a measure of its directivity. In the case of the pattern of Fig. 3, the beamwidth is the width, in degrees, of the main lobe. The beamwidth is typically measured between the -3 dB points, i.e. the points on the main lobe where the signal strength drops off -3 dB (one-half) from the maximum signal point.

*. Last pattern is the clover leaf pattern. *. This pattern is seen on long-wires, on center-fed dipoles that are 3/4-wavelengths long, and certain other antennas. *. Note that there are four main lobes positioned at angles from the antenna wire. The number and angle of these lobes is a function of the antenna design and the frequency of operation.

Local installation factors can affect the radiation pattern. In "free space," i.e. the antenna is installed at great distance from the surface of the Earth, trees, houses, wiring and so forth, the pattern will be nearly perfect. But in practical situations, the two lobes might not be equal, or the minima might be less distinct.

Beamwidth
3dB Beamwidth Peak - 3dB 120 (eg) 10dB Beamwidth Peak - 10dB Peak Peak - 10dB

60 (eg)

Peak Peak - 3dB

3dB Beam width Horizontal

3dB Beam width Vertical

sectoring antenna omni antenna

Downtilt

The theory of electrical down tilt

No downtilt

Electrical down tilt

Mechanical down tilt

Electrical down tilt and mechanical down tilt

Front to Back Ratio

Ratio of maximum mainlobe to maximum sidelobe

Back power

Front power

F/B = 10 log(FP/BP)

typically 25dB

(Side lobes
Upper sidelobe suppression (dB)

Lower sidelobe suppression (dB)

Antenna

1/2 Clamp

7/16 Din Connector 1/2 Jumper

Tower Top Amplifier

7/8 Cable 7/8 Cable

Grounding Machine house 1/2 Jumper EMP Grounding clip

Grounding bar
Cabinet

Propagation Modes
Ground-wave propagation
Sky-wave propagation Line-of-sight propagation

Ground Wave Propagation

Ground Wave Propagation

Follows contour of the earth
Can Propagate considerable distances Frequencies up to 2 MHz

Example AM radio

Sky Wave Propagation

Sky Wave Propagation

Signal reflected from ionized layer of atmosphere back down to earth
Signal can travel a number of hops, back and forth

between ionosphere and earths surface Reflection effect caused by refraction Examples
Amateur radio CB radio

Line-of-Sight Propagation

Line-of-Sight Propagation
Transmitting and receiving antennas must be within line of sight
Satellite communication signal above 30 MHz not

reflected by ionosphere Ground communication antennas within effective line of site due to refraction

Refraction bending of microwaves by the atmosphere

Velocity of electromagnetic wave is a function of the density

of the medium When wave changes medium, speed changes Wave bends at the boundary between mediums

Line-of-Sight Equations
Optical line of sight

d 3.57 h

Effective, or radio, line of sight

d 3.57 h

d = distance between antenna and horizon (km) h = antenna height (m) K = adjustment factor to account for refraction, rule of thumb K = 4/3

Line-of-Sight Equations
Maximum distance between two antennas for LOS

propagation:

3.57 h1 h2

h1 = height of antenna one h2 = height of antenna two

Multipath Propagation

Multipath Propagation
Reflection - occurs when signal encounters a surface that is large relative to the wavelength of the signal Diffraction - occurs at the edge of an impenetrable body that is large compared to wavelength of radio wave Scattering occurs when incoming signal hits an

object whose size in the order of the wavelength of the signal or less

The Effects of Multipath Propagation

Multiple copies of a signal may arrive at different phases If phases add destructively, the signal level relative to noise declines, making detection more difficult Intersymbol interference (ISI) One or more delayed copies of a pulse may arrive at the same time as the primary pulse for a subsequent bit

Types of Fading
Fast fading
Slow fading Flat fading

Selective fading
Rayleigh fading Rician fading

1. Active loads & passive loads