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ALGAE

Introduction

• a very diverse group of plants in the oceans &


freshwater environments, but a few algae live on land

• they range in size from tiny, microscopic forms, to a


very complex forms such as seaweeds and kelps

• algae include both prokaryotic and eukaryotic


organisms (prokaryotic algae: Cyanobacteria and
Prochlorophyta; range from unicells and colonies to
the simplest of branched filaments)

• they possess a variety of cellular structures with


arrangement of cells to form plant bodies, and the
pigments for photosynthesis
Ecological importance of algae

• important primary producers in standing & running


waters, thus provide the principal energy base for many
aquatic food webs

• play important biogeochemical roles in terms of


nutrient fixation and spiraling within the ecosystem

• macroalgae provide a breeding habitat and a refigium


for various animals

• shifts in species composition can affect feeding


relationships, population growth, and guild structure at
higher trophic levels in aquatic food webs
Algae and its role in carbon cycle in aquatic ecosystems
Algal bloom in eutrophic lake can cause detrimental
effects to the ecosystem
The Primary Classification of Algae

The primary classification of algae is based on five


main criteria:

iii. Photosynthetic pigments


iv. The nature of the food reserves
v. The nature of cell wall components
vi. The types of flagella
vii. Certain details of cell structure
Division Class
Rhodophyta (red algae) Rhodophyceae
Chlorophyta (green algae) Chlorophyceae
Prasinophycea

Charophyceae

Euglenophyta (Euglenoid) Euglenophyceae


Chloromonadophyta Chloromonadophyceae
(chloromonad)
Xanthophyta (green-yellow Xanthophyceae
algae)
Bacillariophyta (diatom) Bacillariophyceae
Chrysophyta (golden brown Chrysophyceae
algae)
Phaeophyta (brown algae) Phaeophyceae
Pyrrophyta (dinoflagelum) Dinophyceae
Desmophyceae

Cryptophyta (crytomonad) Cryptophyceae


Cyanophyta (blue-green Cyanophyceae
algae)
Phytoplankton (phyton = plant; planktos = wandering)

Microscopic, free-floating algae that drift on the


ocean & freshwater currents.

These tiny plants, comprised of single cells, or


chains of cells, form the basis for marine
ecosystem

They are characterized by size, shape, and pigmentation

All phytoplankton have Chlorophyll a and accessory


pigment that are either photosynthetic or
photoprotective accessory pigments

During photosynthesis, phytoplankton use solar


radiation, water and carbon dioxide to yield glucose (a
carbon form of energy they can utilize) and oxygen

Phytoplankton and other plants use glucose as "building


blocks" to grow. Also, through photosynthesis, these
microscopic marine plants nourish the entire marine
food web

phytoplankton are essential because they are a critical


part of the ocean biology and in part control the level of
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
Microspora sp
Gloeocapsa sp.
Synedra sp
Phytoplankton move by swimming or changing their
density

Sinking is slowed down by viscous drag on cell wall

Gas vacuoles & gas vesicles in the cells increase


floatation

Buoyancy is regulated by:


• synthesis of the gas vacuoles
• increase in cell ballast
• vacuole dilution due to growth
• Flagella & cilia
Measurement

Van Dorn sampler

Small pumps driven by battery-powered motors

Simple hand-pump vacuum siphoning systems

Coring devices (sediments)

Plankton nets

We can observe phytoplankton with satellite instruments


via ocean color remote sensing. The satellite detects
different concentrations of Chlorophyll a with ocean color
satellites.
Seasonal cycles of phytoplankton

Spring bloom:

• physical effect - increase of sunlight & solar heating

• high growth rates occur only after thermal


stratification

Stratification:

• cuts off the supply of nutrients from the hypolimnion –


limit growth

• Stratification within the euphotic layer is a primary


factor controlling phytoplankton growth

• two main factors limiting phytoplankton growth:


illumination and nutrients

• Light limitation is crucial under low stratification (e. g.,


winter convection), because algae cells are dispersed by
turbulent mixing within deep dark layers

• Nutrient limitation is crucial under enhanced stratification


(e. g., seasonal thermocline in summer), because nutrients
do not penetrate into the euphotic (i. e., well illuminated)
upper mixed layer


• The hydrometeorological factors (heat flux, wind,
freshwater load with precipitation and river discharge) either
increase or decrease the stratification within the euphotic
layer

• Typical seasonal cycles of phytoplankton result from the


combined effect of seasonal cycles of hydrometeorological
factors influencing water stratification within the euphotic
layer. The most illustrative is the phytoplankton seasonal
cycle in mid-latitudes with two maxima in spring and autumn:

The rising T increase zooplankton grazing rates &


microbial parasitic attacks
Season Hydrometeorologica Stratification Phytoplankton
l factors growth
Winter Maximum cooling of Deep Winter
convection minimum
upper layer resulting from
light limitation
Spring Heating of upper Formation of
seasonal Spring bloom
layer increases thermocline

Summer Maximum heating of Maximum Summer


upper layer; stratification minimum
Minimum mixing resulting from
nutrient
limitation
Fall Cooling of upper Erosion of Autumn bloom
layer increases; seasonal
mixing increases thermocline
Seasonal cycles of phytoplankton: driven by water
temperature, stability, zooplankton abundance

the presence of a spring and fall phytoplankton bloom,


followed by an abundance maximum of zooplankton.

the tropical ocean generally lacks pronounced seasons, thus


no pronounced seasonal cycle of plankton abundance and
production.
Typical vertical profiles of phytoplankton biomass
(chlorophyll), production, temperature, and nitrate
concentrations in the tropical, oligotrophic ocean
Annual growth cycle is modified by:

iii. Nutrient availability


iv. The degree of thermal stratification
v. Algal movement
vi. Interalgal competition
vii. Zooplankton grazing
viii.Parasitism by protozoans, fungi, bacteria and
viruses

The dynamics features of aquatic water bodies – color,


clarity, trophic state, water chemistry, the taste &
odor of the water, animal plankton and fish
production – depend to a large degree on
phytoplankton
2. Periphyton

• A periphyton mat is a community of many kinds of tiny


organisms including algae, cyanobacteria, bacteria,
insect larvae, and snails.

• Periphyton is very productive (makes a lot of living


material).

• Periphyton provides shade in the marsh and


protection for small fish and insects in the water
column.

• Periphyton stores nutrients and builds soil

• attached algae, grow on submerged substrates (rocks,


mud or vegetation)

• pennate diatoms, filamentous greens, and blue-greens


are common members of the periphyton

• pennate diatoms and blue-greens – move over the


substrates by gliding

• filamentous greens are fixed

• the entire thallus may be appressed to the substrates


Microflora Substrate

Epilithic Rocks

Epipelic Muds or sediments

Epipsamic Sand surfaces

Epiphytic Plants or macroalgae

Epizoic Animals

Epidendric Wood

• availability of light and grazing by aquatic insect larvae


and snails are important in regulating periphyton
biomass

• their colonization of new sites follows a pattern akin to


that in terrestrial vegetation

• attached algae follow the cycles of the material on


which they grow

• the type of substrate is important in determining


whether a particular species is able to grow
2.a. Epilithic communities

• Algae growing on rock surfaces


• the algae are adapted to swiftly flowing water by being
either encrusting or basally attached
• four groups of algae are found frequently in the epilithic
flora, Cyanophyta, Chlorophyta, Rhodophyta and
encrusting Bacillariophyta

Green color on rock surfaces are due to the occurrence of algal


mats (Cyanophyta, Chlorophyta), and brown color patches are
dominated by Bacillariophyta
2.b. Epiphytic communities
• algae growing on microscopic or macroscopic algae
(seaweeds, Chara,
Cladophora, etc.) and other aquatic plants (Bryophyta,
Pteridophyta or Angiosperm)
• the attachment of epiphytic algae is in part related to the
structure of the surface layers of the plants
2.c. Epipsamic communities

• algae growing on sand


• mainly composed of diatoms, blue green algae, coccoid
Chlorophyceae and Euglenoids
The advantages of using algae as biological
indicators in monitoring and protecting aquatic
environments:
• Algae generally have rapid reproduction rates & very
short life cycles making them valuable indicators of
short-term impacts
• As primary producers, algae are most directly
affected by physical and chemical factors
• Sampling is easy, inexpensive & creates minimal
impact to resident biota
• Algal assemblages are sensitive to some pollutants,
which may not visibly affect other aquatic
assemblages
• Relatively standard methods exist for evaluation of
functional and non-taxonomic structural
characteristics of algal communities
• Algal cells accumulate and concentrate the pollutant
substances
• Similar species assemblages occur predictably at
locations having
comparable physical and chemical conditions
• Algal assemblages are typically species rich
• Algal community structure and function respond
rapidly to changes
in environmental conditions. Algae exhibit predictable
responses to a variety of environmental stressors
• Algal taxa vary considerably in their sensitivity to
common pollutants
• Pollution tolerance well documented

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