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Eukaryotes Essential part of the life cycle Sexual reproduction Gametes fuse to form zygote Each parent produces genetically
different gametes
Mutant genes: recA, recB, recC and recD Reduced recombinations RecA protein RecBCD protein - enzyme consisting of a
polypeptide subunits encoded by other rec genes
Transformation
Mechanism of Transformation
Naked DNA DNA released from an organism after Organisms take up a maximum of
about 10 fragments
the cell is lysed and the DNA no longer incorporated into chromosomes or other structures
High cell density and depletion of nutrients Uptake of DNA Competence factor released into the
medium
Mechanism of Transformation
Other factors Modifications of the cell wall Formation of specific receptor sites on
the plasma membrane
Mechanism of Transformation
DNA reaches the entry sites Endonucleases cut dsDNA into units of
7000-10000 nucleotides the cell
Strand separates and one strand enters ssDNA vulnerable to nucleases Nucleases must be inactivated ssDNA base pairs immediately with a
portion of the recipient chromosome
Mechanism of Transformation
Identical loci are next to one another Enzymes in the recipient cell excise a
portion of the recipients DNA and recombine it with the donor DNA chromosome
Permanently part of the recipients Leftover DNA is broken down Number of nucleotides in the cells
DNA remains constant
Mechanism of Transformation
Neisseria gonorrhoeae
Haemophilus influenzae
Transduction
Properties of Bacteriophages
Composed of a core of
on the cell wall of the bacterium
Phage genes direct the cell to Destroy host DNA Other proteins and nucleic
bacteriums DNA and is replicated with it prevents destruction of bacterial DNA phage particles
Lysogenic cycle
Transduction happens when some bacterial DNA is packed into the heads of phages
Specialized Transduction
assembly of new phage particles and the cell lyses contain only phage genes; rarely does the phage contain one or more bacterial genes
Generalized Transduction
Phage directs synthesis and assembly of DNA packaged by the headful Bacterial DNA occasionally incorporated
into phage particle; plasmids and DNA from other viruses may be incorporated
Generalized Transduction
Significance of Transduction
Regions of similar base sequence Suggest viral origin of cancer Prophage can exist in a cell for long periods of
time
Conjugation
Bacterial cells contain several different Conjugation involves Transfer of F plasmids High frequency recombinations (Hfr) Transfer of F plasmids
Characteristics of Plasmids
Self-replicating F plasmid was first discovered Promiscuous cells Self-transmissible plasmids Conjugation with other species than
their own kind
Functions of Plasmids
Resistance (R) plasmids - genes that Plasmids that direct the synthesis of
bacteriocins
F+ and F- were found to exist in any population of E. coli capable of conjugating F+ cells contain Fertility plasmids F- lack F plasmids
F plasmids carry
Sex pilus contains a hole that may permit Evidences suggest that mating cells
temporarily fuse during DNA transfer
receptor site on surface of the Fcell forming a pore Inside the F- cell, pilus is pulled in and dismantled DNA from F+ cell enters F- cell complementary strand of DNA Both cells will become F+
the F+ x F- conjugations (L.L. Cavalli-Sforza) plasmid is incorporated into the bacterial chromosome
High-frequency recombinations
Transfer of F plasmids
DNA incorporated into a chromosome can Imprecise - can carry fragments of the
chromosome
Resistance Plasmids
Organisms with R plasmids are said to Rapid process Large numbers of previously non-resistant
organisms can become resistant quickly
R plasmids have two components Resistance Transfer Factor (RTF) DNA similar to F plasmids Implements transfer by conjugation of the
whole R plasmid
Resistant (R) genes One or more may be present Carries information that confers resistance Synthesis of an enzyme that inactivates the
antibiotic
Transposition
Transposition
Copy randomly inserted into bacterial May cause mutations (spontaneous Transposons - transposable elements that
contain genes for transposition