Nervous tissue

Composed of two cell types:

Neurons transmit impulses to other neurons, muscles, glands Neuroglial cells which support neurons and participate in neuronal activity, nutrition and defense processes

Neurons
Composed of three basic parts
Cell body or soma Dendritic processes form the receptive area of the neuron Axon conducts electrical impulses

 Cell body
Composed of vesicular nucleus with a single prominent nucleolus perikaryon (cytoplasm surrounding the nucleus) crammed with protein synthetic machinery, which reflects the high metabolic activity of the cells

 Dendrites similar to the perikaryon in composition

Neurons have numerous short dendrites which divide like branches of a tree to increase the receptive area of the cell

 Axons - cylindrical processes that arise from the perikaryon form the stem of a major dendrite through a short pyramidal-shaped region called the axon hillock
differs from the dendrite in that it contains no protein synthetic machinery.

 Axolemma - cell membrane of the axon Axoplasm The axoplasm contains abundant high density microtubules and neurofilaments

Structural crosslinks between microtubules, neurofilaments and mitochondria are observed under the electron microscope

 Axons may be myelinated or non myelinated.

Unmyelinated axons in the peripheral nervous system are wrapped in the cytoplasm of glial cells known as Schwann cells. Often many axons are covered by one Schwann cells.
These axons are small in diameter and are relatively slow conductors

 Myelinated axons are large in diameter and are ensheathed in spiral wrappings of the Schwann cell membrane called myelin.

rich in phospholipids and cholesterol.

One Schwann cell will myelinate one axon in the peripheral nervous system.

 In the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord), glial cells known as oligodendrocytes myelinate 50 or more axons per cell Long axons are myelinated by many Schwann cells end to end. At the junction between two Schwann cells there is discontinuity in the myelin such that a collar of naked axon is exposed to the extracellular space. This discontinuity is called Node of Ranvier. The combination of myelin and nodes serves to increase the velocity of the action potential along an axon.

Synapses
Junctional complexes designed for the unidirectional impulse conduction between contiguous neurons or between neurons and muscle or gland cells

Most synapses are between an axon and a dendrite or between one axon and a cell body. There are also synapses between dendrites and between axons

 A synapse is characterized in electron micrographs be a dense collection of 30-50 nm diameter synaptic vesicles in the axoplasm and a close apposition of the pre- and post synaptic membranes separated by a 20 nm space the synaptic cleft.

 At the synapse between neurons, the synaptic vesicles fuse with the presynaptic membrane and release a neurotransmitter ( acetylcholine) into the synaptic cleft.
Certain neurotransmitters are inactivated in the synaptic cleft by hydrolytic enzymes ( acetylcholine is broken down by acetylcholinesterase) while others are taken up by the presynaptic cell (norepinephrine). Neurotransmitters may either excite (depolarize) or inhibit (hyperpolarize) the postsynaptic membrane.

 The synapse between neurons and muscle cells is called the neuromuscular junction or motor end plate. The postsynaptic membrane ( of the muscle cell) is convoluted into numerous folds, the subneural clefts.

The release of acetylcholine depolarizes the sarcolemma

Classification of neurons
Neurons may be categorized by the size and shape of their processes Unipolar one axon and no dendrites

Classification of neurons
Neurons may be categorized by the size and shape of their processes Bipolar one axon and one dendrite
Bipolar neurons are found in the cochlear and vestibular ganglia and in the retina and olfactory mucosa

 Multipolar - more than two processes, one being the axon and the rest dendrites. Most neurons in the body are multipolar

Classification of neurons
Neurons may be categorized by the size and shape of their processes Pseudounipolar show single process close to the perikaryon which divides into two branches: one branch extends to a peripheral ending and the other extends to the central nervous system.
Found n the spinal (dorsal root) and most cranial ganglia

 Neurons are also classified according to their functional role Motor control effector organs and muscle fiber
Sensory receive sensory stimuli from the internal or external environment

Neuroglia
Play an important role in the normal functioning of the nervous system Form the myelin sheaths of axons and are necessary for tissue culturing of neurons. In the CNS, - microglia, astrocytes, oligodendrocytes and ependymal cells Neuroglial cells in the peripheral nervous system consist of Schwann cells

Microglia
small, dense, elongated cells with elongated nuclei Possess short processes covered with spines. Originate from the mesenchyme Phagocytic and function like connective tissue macrophages Part of the RES

Astrocytes

Largest of neuroglial cells

Have centrally located nuclei and numerous long processes with expanded vascular feet or pedicles at their ends attach to the walls of blood capillaries

Oligodendrocytes
Smaller than the astrocytes and contain less numerous and shorter processes Their nuclei are small and their cytoplasm contains abundant mitochondria, ribosomes and microtubules. Myelinate axons in the CNS

Ependymal cells
arranged like epithelium and line the ventricular cavities of the brain and central canal of the spinal cord. They are columnar cells with long nuclei.

They are capable of division and can develop long processes that penetrate the neural tissue

 Schwann cells
contain elongated nuclei that lie parallel to the axon of peripheral neurons. They assume a cylindrical form in the myelin sheathes they synthesize. The biogenesis of myelin involves the wrapping of a double layered infolding of the Schwann cell membrane around the axon

Nerve fibers
Composed of axons of neurons that are usually encased in a myelin sheath. Groups of nerve fibers compose the tracts of the brain, spinal cord and peripheral nerves In the peripheral nervous system, nerve fibers group in bundles for form nerves

The nerve stroma consists of an external fibrous coat of dense connective tissue called the epineurium

A thin loose connective tissue layer called the endoneurium associates with individual nerve fibers. Reticular fibers of the endoneurium form an incomplete sheath around each fiber

 The connective tissue septae of the epineurium penetrate the nerve to form the perinuerium which surrounds the nerve fiber bundles

 Nerve cells are normally stimulated at one set of terminals and conduct impulses unidirectionally away form the region that receives stimulation.
Afferent fibers conduct impulses toward the CNS Efferent fibers conduct away from the CNS

 Sensory nerves contain only afferent fibers

Motor nerves contain only efferent fibers Mixed nerves contain both efferent and afferent fibers

Ganglia
Collections of nerve cell bodies outside the CNS. They are ovoid structures encapsulated by dense connective tissue that is continuous with the epineurium and perineurium of the nerve fibers. The body of each ganglion cell is enveloped by a layer of small cuboidal satellite cells. A thin fibrous layer of connective tissue envelops each perikaryon and its satellite cells