Uranium and Nuclear Energy

Dr. Akepati S. Reddy Thapar University Patiala (Punjab) 147 001 INDIA

Nuclear Energy
Mining
One pound uranium = 6 tons of coal Natural uranium has 99% U-238 & 0.7% U-235 Enrichment - enhance the level to 3-5% UF6 gas gas chromatography Uranium oxide pressing into ceramic pellets Old nuclear weapons have 20-90% U-235 Fuel rods - control rods Water as modulator Reactor core steel pressure vessel Reprocessing of Nuclear waste

Enriching

Nuclear wastes

Fission in Nuclear reactor

Fission in Breeder reactor

Nuclear wastes Reinforced concrete containment Equipped to tackle problems arising from human error, equipment failure earth quakes, tornadoes, etc.

Global proven reserves, production and cumulative production of Uranium during 1999
Proven reserves at US $ <80/kg Africa North America South America Asia India Europe Middle East Oceania Total world 507,400 431,400 169,000 564,300 -----228,500 -----571,000 2,471,600 Proven Annual Cumulative reserves at production production US $ <130/kg (tons) (tons) 613,100 704,100 171,200 819,300 52,700 303,300 500 670,000 3,281,500 6,994 9,987 4 4,573 210 5,044 -----5,984 32,586 352,799 682,189 3,539 195,393 7,069 586,994 -----83,578 1,904,492

Country-wise reserves, production and cumulative production of uranium during 1999

Country Proven reserves at US$ 80/kg 105,000 326,400 232,900 140,900 436,600 571,000 149,300 -----162,000 Proven reserves at US$ 130/kg 349,000 326,400 292,800 140,900 598,600 670,000 180,500 52,700 162,000 Production Cumulative production 1,773 8,214 1,093 2,600 1,560 5,984 2,689 210 -----352,300 329,840 152,694 111,253 86,502 83,578 69,411 7,069 1,030

USA Canada South Africa Russian Federation Kazakhstan Australia Namibia India Brazil

Nuclear energy: Operating Capacity and Generation

Region Operating Power generated Expected capacity in 1999 in 1999 (in TWh) operating (MW) capacity in 2010
(2) 1,800 11.6 1,800

Africa

North America
South America Asia Europe Middle East

(120) 108,919
(3) 1,552 (90) 65,884 (215) 170,854 ------

806.6
10.6 465.8 1096.0 ------

109,996
4,752 101,889 164,394 2,000

Oceania
Total world

-----(430) 349,009

-----2,390.6

-----384,831

Nuclear energy: Operating Capacity and Generation

Country Operating Power generated Expected capacity in 1999 in 1999 (in TWh) operating (MW) capacity in 2010 (104) 97,557 (59) 63,183 (52) 43,445 (19) 21,142 (29) 19,843 (16) 12,990 (33) 12,742 (14) 12,115 727.7 (19.8%) 375.0 (75.0%) 303.3 (34.7%) 160.4 (31.2%) 110.9 (14.4%) 97.8 (42.8%) 88.0 (26.0%) 67.4 (43.8%) 93,730 (98) 64,420 (59) 58,000 (64) 17,412 (13) 21,336 (---) 21,400 (26) 7,750 (13) 13,090 (15)

USA France Japan Germany Russian Federation Korea (republic) UK Ukraine India *:- number plants;

(11)* 1,897 **11.5 (02.7%) *4,013 (---) **:- contribution to total electricity in parathesis

Nuclear Energy and India

Current capacity: 11 reactors (9 are PHWRs and 2 are BWRs and maximum capacity of a single rector is 202MW) totaling to 1897MW capacity in operation In 2000AD 3 reactors (Rajastan-3 & 4 and Kaiga-1) of 202MW capacity each have been brought into operation Capacity under construction, pre-project and planning levels: Two PHWRs (each of 450MW capacity) are under construction Work on the first of the two proposed Russian designed 950MW capacity WWERs has begun at Kudankulam, Tamil Nadu Pre-project activities are on for four units (at Kaiga site near Karwar, Karnataka), each of 202MW capacity; and four units (at a site near Kota, Rajastan), each of 450MW capacity Six PHWR units, each of 450MW capacity are in the planning stage and site for these is not yet decided India has 10,600MW net (11,600MW gross) capacity in operation, under construction and under planning Indias objective is to have 20,000MW gross capacity by 2020 India is planning to develop fast-breeder reactors and use its huge indigenous thorium reserves

Global Nuclear Power Generation Capacities Additions

1971-9175 1976-1980 1981-1985 1986-90 1991-95 55,500 60,400 114,400 123,400 (scheduled) 22,900 (scheduled)

Energy contribution by nuclear is 6% (fossil fuels 87%; hydro and renewable 7%) Electricity accounts for 36% of the total energy consumed and nuclear contributes 17% (10% by oil; 16% by natural gas; 38% by coal and 19% by hydro and other renewable energy sources) In 1986 there were 366 and 140 (506) nuclear power reactors of 255,670 and 127, 072 (382,742 MW) generation capacity in operation and under construction respectively 72% generation by 5 economically powerful and technologically advanced countries In 1997 there were 437 reactors producing 17% of the worlds electricity

Prospects of Nuclear Energy

Prospects for nuclear power have not been bright Year 1980 1990 2000 1974 235 1600 4450 1978 170 585 1400 1982 386 605 1986 372 505 1986 325 380 Root causes for nuclear power industry being sick Legacy of deadly radioactive waste Risks of catastrophic nuclear accidents Nuclear weapon proliferation & nuclear terrorism threat Nuclear energy not being cheaper If global expansion of nuclear energy for mitigating climate change is considered then prospects are Year Capacity Power generated % of electricity 2025 721,000 4764 23% 2050 1447,000 9352 30% 2075 2352,000 15524 38% 2100 3327,000 21948 46%

Nuclear Industry is a Sick Industry

Nuclear industry is sick and propped up by subsidies Worldwide reactor orders and startups have peaked in 1968 and 1984 respectively Countries are opting for deliberate and planned phase out of nuclear power 14 out of 15 European union countries are either non-nuclear or are intending to phase out nuclear power by 1998 no new nuclear reactors are under construction both in north America and west Europe USA led the world into nuclear age and it is now leading out last nuclear plant was ordered in 1974 construction of reactors has almost stopped in 1990s nuclear power generation capacity has peaked in early 90s and it will slowly decline with the decommissionings In West Germany Nuclear expansion program was stalled since mid 70s Slow decline of nuclear power generation and total abandonment by 2000 AD After math of Chernobyl accident - ruling party for abandoning in 30 years, opposition for abandonment in 10 years and Green party in 2 years

Causes for Nuclear Energy Decline

High cost (old perception that running and maintenance cost is
lesser has been proved wrong) Cost of nuclear power in 1984 was
$2865/kW in USA; 2080 in UK; 2019 in Canada; 1600 in Sweden; 1429 in West Germany; 1405 in Japan and 870 in France

Nuclear power is proving not cheaper than the non-fossil fuel alternates in USA (1996)
12 cents/kWh (6 for coal power) Cost is increasing ($200/kW in early 70s; 750 in 1980; 1900 in 1984; 3200 in 1986-87)

Catastrophic accident potential

$150 billion and 140000 deaths possible (Chernobyl accident: affected 9 million people, contaminated 160,000 km2 land, massive increase of thyroid cancer) problems associated with end of the reactors design life are not sufficiently addressed under normal circumstances very small emissions of radioactive substances
exposure level may increase by 1 to 2/1000 parts Average Americans radiation exposure is 82% from natural sources, and 0.1% from nuclear energy production radiation exposure from coal power plants 0.5%

Causes for Nuclear Energy Decline

Proliferation of nuclear weapons and nuclear terrorism Plutonium is used in making nuclear bombs (Initial crude nuclear reactors were built for producing plutonium for weapons) Nuclear reactors, reprocessing units and fast breeder reactors are associated with increased availability of plutonium Nuclear waste transportation activity is associated with accident potential (a mobile Chernobyl) and danger of interception by terrorists Reprocessing of nuclear waste is banned in USA Nuclear power complexes must be heavily armed with security forces and surveillance equipment Nuclear waste handling and disposal problem By 1988 worlds nuclear power plants generated 7000 tons of spent fuel by 1994 it is 145,000 tons and by 2010 it will be 322,000 tons Waste is temporarily stored under water Fast breeder reactors may multiply nuclear wastes Till date there is no demonstrated method for isolating nuclear waste from environment for adequate period

Global Warming and Nuclear Energy

Climate protection requires 50 to 80% reduction in CO2 emission from burning of fossil fuels Alternative non-fossil fuel energy sources or nuclear energy which can be the strategy

Getting nuclear endeavor back

Nuclear power can not completely replace fossil fuels only for electricity - can cut CO2 emissions by 7% Increasing nuclear share from present 17% to 70% may mean Adding one new nuclear power plant for every 9 days up till 2010 AD in just OECD countries Creating a world with 3000 nuclear reactors accumulation of 6.3 million tons spent fuel by 2100AD (2,00,000 m3 of high level nuclear waste) Generation of 100 to 3000 tons of plutonium and an inventory of 50,000 to 100,000 tons of plutonium by 2100 Chaotic shut down of the power system in the event of any serious nuclear accident Fast breeder reactors have not been successful in producing plutonium as expected and economics are against nuclear waste reprocessing units Initiating suns nuclear furnace (fusion of deuterium and tritium) appears to be a mirage not a promise

Global Warming and Nuclear Energy

Problems associated with expansion of nuclear power
Requires tackling the three problems associated with it Nuclear energy is capital intensive (requiring foreign exchange) and monopolistic Feared to encourage wasteful consumption of energy May lead to inequity (technology transfer, fuel availability and capital constraints)

Counter arguments by the advocates of nuclear expansion

Nuclear power is held up to unrealistically strict standards Second nuclear era can be of safe reactors (long term and unpredictable consequences of nuclear accidents, or overly fearful and technologically ignorant public) Health impacts are less than those from coal power plants Nuclear energy since 1973 has prevented emission of 219 million tons of SO2; 2 billion tons of CO2 and 98 million tons of NOx Political and psychological problems are acting as barriers for the acceptance of the disposal of radioactive waste 150 tons of natural uranium = 2.5 million tons of coal = 12 million barrels of oil