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Central dogma
replication transcription translation
DNA
RNA
protein
reverse transcription
Replication: synthesis of daughter DNA from parental DNA Transcription: synthesis of RNA using DNA as the template Translation: protein synthesis using mRNA molecules as the template Reverse transcription: synthesis of DNA using RNA as the template
Chapter 10
DNA Replication
Section 1
General Concepts of DNA Replication
DNA replication
A reaction in which daughter DNAs are synthesized using the parental DNAs as the template. Transferring the genetic information to the descendant generation with a high fidelity replication parental DNA daughter DNA
The nature of DNA replication is a series of 3- 5phosphodiester bond formation catalyzed by a group of enzymes.
Characteristics of replication
Semiconservative replication
Half of the parental DNA molecule is conserved in each new double helix, paired with a newly synthesized complementary strand. This is called semiconservative replication
Semiconservative replication
Significance
The genetic information is ensured to be transferred from one generation to the next generation with a high fidelity.
Replication fork
5' 3' 3' 5' 5' 3' 5'
direction of replication
3'
Bidirectional replication
Once the dsDNA is opened at the origin, two replication forks are formed spontaneously. These two replication forks move in opposite directions as the syntheses continue.
Bidirectional replication
Replication of prokaryotes
The replication process starts from the origin, and proceeds in two opposite directions. It is named replication.
Replication of eukaryotes
Chromosomes of eukaryotes have multiple origins. The space between two adjacent origins is called the replicon, a functional unit of replication.
Leading strand
On the template having the 3- end, the daughter strand is synthesized continuously in the 5-3 direction. This strand is referred to as the leading strand.
3' 5' 3'
direction of unwinding
3'
5' 5'
Semi-continuous replication
3' 5' replication fork
3' 3' replication direction 5' 5' 3' 5' Okazaki fragment
3' 5' leading strand
Okazaki fragments
Many DNA fragments are synthesized sequentially on the DNA template strand having the 5- end. These DNA fragments are called Okazaki fragments. They are 1000 2000 nt long for prokaryotes and 100-150 nt long for eukaryotes. The daughter strand consisting of Okazaki fragments is called the lagging strand.
Semi-continuous replication
Continuous synthesis of the leading strand and discontinuous synthesis of the lagging strand represent a unique feature of DNA replication. It is referred to as the semi-continuous replication.
Section 2
Enzymology of DNA Replication
Later, DNA-pol II and DNA-pol III were identified in experiments using mutated E.coli cell line. All of them possess the following biological activity. 1. 5 3 polymerizing 2. exonuclease
DNA-pol of E. coli
DNA-pol I
Mainly responsible for proofreading and filling the gaps, repairing DNA damage
Klenow fragment
N end DNA-pol caroid C end
small fragment (323 AA): having 53 exonuclease activity large fragment (604 AA): called Klenow fragment, having DNA polymerization and 35exonuclease activity
DNA-pol II
Temporary functional when DNA-pol I and DNA-pol III are not functional Still capable for doing synthesis on the damaged template Participating in DNA repairing
DNA-pol III
A heterodimer enzyme composed of ten different subunits Having the highest polymerization activity (105 nt/min) The true enzyme responsible for the elongation process
DNA-pol of eukaryotes
DNA-pol : initiate replication and synthesize primers DNA-pol : replication with low fidelity DNA-pol : polymerization in mitochondria DNA-pol : elongation DNA-pol : proofreading and filling gap DNA-pol III DNA-pol I DnaG, primase repairing
2.2 Primase
Also called DnaG Primase is able to synthesize primers using free NTPs as the substrate and the ssDNA as the template. Primers are short RNA fragments of a several decades of nucleotides long.
Primers provide free 3-OH groups to react with the -P atom of dNTP to form phosphoester bonds. Primase, DnaB, DnaC and an origin form a primosome complex at the initiation phase.
2.3 Helicase
Also referred to as DnaB. It opens the double strand DNA with consuming ATP. The opening process with the assistance of DnaA and DnaC
2.5 Topoisomerase
Opening the dsDNA will create supercoil ahead of replication forks. The supercoil constraint needs to be released by topoisomerases.
The interconversion of topoisomers of dsDNA is catalyzed by a topoisomerase in a three-step process: Cleavage of one or both strands of DNA Passage of a segment of DNA through this break Resealing of the DNA break
Topoisomerase I (topo I)
Also called -protein in prokaryotes. It cuts a phosphoester bond on one DNA strand, rotates the broken DNA freely around the other strand to relax the constraint, and reseals the cut.
OH
5' 3'
5' 3'
DNA polymerase
Connect two adjacent ssDNA strands by joining the 3-OH of one DNA strand to the 5-P of another DNA strand. Sealing the nick in the process of replication, repairing, recombination, and splicing.
Exonuclease functions
53 exonuclease activity 35 exonuclease activity
cut primer or excise mismatched excise mutated nuleotides segment 3' 5' C T T C A G G A
3'
G A A G T C C G G C G
5'
Section 3
DNA Replication Process
Sequential actions
Initiation: recognize the starting point, separate dsDNA, primer synthesis, Elongation: add dNTPs to the existing strand, form phosphoester bonds, correct the mismatch bases, extending the DNA strand, Termination: stop the replication
Genome of E. coli
Structure of ori C
Three 13 bp consensus sequences Two pairs of anti-consensus repeats
Formation of preprimosome
Primer synthesis
Primase joins and forms a complex called primosome. Primase starts the synthesis of primers on the ssDNA template using NTP as the substrates in the 5- 3 direction at the expense of ATP. The short RNA fragments provide free 3-OH groups for DNA elongation.
Primosome complex
Dna C
primase
3'
5'
b. Elongation
dNTPs are continuously connected to the primer or the nascent DNA chain by DNA-pol III. The core enzymes ( and ) catalyze the synthesis of leading and lagging strands, respectively. The nature of the chain elongation is the series formation of the phosphodiester bonds.
The synthesis direction of the leading strand is the same as that of the replication fork. The synthesis direction of the latest Okazaki fragment is also the same as that of the replication fork.
3' 5'
5' 3'
OH
5' 3'
c. Termination
The replication of E. coli is bidirectional from one origin, and the two replication forks must meet at one point called ter at 32. All the primers will be removed, and all the fragments will be connected by DNA-pol I and ligase.
Cell cycle
Initiation
The eukaryotic origins are shorter than that of E. coli. Requires DNA-pol (primase activity) and DNA-pol (polymerase activity and helicase activity). Needs topoisomerase and replication factors (RF) to assist.
b. Elongation
DNA replication and nucleosome assembling occur simultaneously. Overall replication speed is compatible with that of prokaryotes.
c. Termination
3' 5' 3' 5' 5' 3' 5' 3'
connection of discontinuous segment 5' 3' 5' 3'
Telomere
The terminal structure of eukaryotic DNA of chromosomes is called telomere. Telomere is composed of terminal DNA sequence and protein. The sequence of typical telomeres is rich in T and G. The telomere structure is crucial to keep the termini of chromosomes in the cell from becoming entangled and sticking to each other.
Telomerase
The eukaryotic cells use telomerase to maintain the integrity of DNA telomere. The telomerase is composed of telomerase RNA telomerase association protein telomerase reverse transcriptase It is able to synthesize DNA using RNA as the template.
Inchworm model
Significance of Telomerase
Telomerase may play important roles is cancer cell biology and in cell aging.
Section 4
Other Replication Modes
Reverse transcription
Reverse transcription is a process in which ssRNA is used as the template to synthesize dsDNA.
Reverse transcriptase
Reverse transcriptase is the enzyme for the reverse transcription. It has activity of three kinds of enzymes: RNA-dependent DNA polymerase RNase DNA-dependent DNA polymerase
Significance of RT
An important discovery in life science and molecular biology RNA plays a key role just like DNA in the genetic information transfer and gene expression process. RNA could be the molecule developed earlier than DNA in evolution. RT is the supplementary to the
Significance of RT
This discovery enriches the understanding about the cancercausing theory of viruses. (cancer genes in RT viruses, and HIV having RT function) Reverse transcriptase has become a extremely important tool in molecular biology to select the target genes.
5'
3'
5'
Section 5
DNA Damage and Repair
5.1 Mutation
Mutation is a change of nucleic acids in genomic DNA of an organism. The mutation could occur in the replication process as well as in other steps of life process.
Consequences of mutation
To create a diversity of the biological world; a natural evolution of biological systems To lead to the functional alternation of biomolecules, death of cells or tissues, and some diseases as well Changes of genotype, but no effect on phenotype
UV radiation
Chemical modification
Physical factors
T G
viruses
evolution
Physical damage
O R P R N O N CH3 CH3 O N O R O N N O CH3 CH3 R N O N O
UV
N
(TT)
Transition mutation
Frame-shift mutation
Normal 5 GCA GUA CAU GUC Ala Val His Val Deletion C 5 GAG UAC AUG UC Glu Tyr Met Ser
c. Rearrangement
It is an exchange of large DNA fragments. It can be either reverse the direction or recombination between chromosomes. 1. Site-specific recombination 2. Homologous genetic recombination 3. DNA transposition
Light repairing
O R P R N O N CH3 CH3 O N O R O N N O CH3 CH3 R N O N O
UV
N
(TT)
Excision repairing
One of the most important and effective repairing approach. UvrA and UvrB: recognize and bind the damaged region of DNA. UvrC: excise the damaged segment. DNA-pol : synthesize the DNA segment to fill the gap. DNA ligase: seal the nick.
Excision repairing
Recombination repairing
It is used for repairing when a large segment of DNA is damaged. Recombination protein RecA, RecB and RecC participate in this repairing.
SOS repairing
It is responsible for the situation that DNA is severely damaged and the replication is hard to continue. If workable, the cell could be survived, but may leave many errors. In E. coli, uvr gene and rec gene as well as Lex A protein constitute a regulatory network.