Sensations can be defined as the passive process of

bringing information from the outside world into

the body and to the brain. The process is passive in
the sense that we do not have to be consciously
engaging in a "sensing" process.
 How sensation and perception work together:

Sensation occurs:
 sensory organs absorb energy from a

physical stimulus in the environment.

 sensory receptors convert this energy into

neural impulses and send them to the

brain.

Perception follows:
 the brain organizes the information and

translates it into something meaningful.

 In order to measure these events,
psychologists use THRESHOLDS.

3. Threshold - a dividing line between what has detectable

energy and what does not.

5. Difference Threshold - the minimum amount of stimulus

intensity change needed to produce a noticeable change.

 the greater the intensity (ex., weight) of a stimulus, the

greater the change needed to produce a noticeable change.
1. Signal-Detection Theory - detection of a stimulus involves
some decision making process as well as a sensory process.
Additionally, both sensory and decision making processes
are influenced by many more factors than just intensity.

C. Noise - how much outside interference exists.

E. Criterion - the level of assurance that you decide must be

met before you take action.
 The Nature of Sensory
Processes
 Sensory Thresholds

3. Absolute threshold

5. Sensory adaptation

7. Difference threshold (just noticeable

difference)
 the minimum amount of stimulus intensity
change needed to produce a noticeable change.
 the greater the intensity (ex., weight) of a
stimulus, the greater the change needed to
produce a noticeable change.
 Visual sense

the visual system works on sensing and

perceiving light waves. Light waves
vary in their length and amplitude.
 Structure of The EYE:
1. Cornea - the round, transparent area that allows light to
pass into the eye.

3. Lens - the transparent structure that focuses light onto the

retina.

5. Retina - inner membrane of the eye that receives information

about light using rods and cones. The functioning of the
retina is similar to the spinal cord - both act as a highway for
information to travel on.

7. Pupil - opening at the center of the iris which controls the

amount of light entering the eye.
1. Rods & Cones - many more rods (approximately 120
million) than cones (approx 6.4 million).

c) cones - visual receptor cells that are important in daylight

vision and color vision.

 the cones work well in daylight, but not in dim lighting.

This is why it is more difficult to see colors in low light.
 most are located in the center of the retina...called the
FOVEA, which is a tiny spot in the center of the retina that
contains ONLY cones...visual acuity is best here.

h) rods - visual receptor cells that are important for night

vision and peripheral vision.

 the rods are better for night vision because they are much
more sensitive than cones.
 Are these triangles real?
They appear to be, because
the brain automatically fills
in lines that are missing.
But if you block out parts of
the picture, the white
triangle vanishes.
 The black line in the
back seems much
longer than the one in
the front because your
brain assumes it is
seeing the effects of
perspective. When the
background is
removed, the lines are
seen to be equal.
 Seeing In Color

Color Vision Theories:

1. Trichromatic Theory

 this theory indicates that we can receive 3 types of colors (red,

green, and blue) and that the cones vary the ratio of neural
activity (Like a projection T.V.). The ratio of each color to the other
then determines the exact color that we see.

5. Opponent-Process Theory

 color perception depends on the reception of pairs of antagonist

colors. Each receptor can only work with one color at a time so
the opponent color in the pair is blocked out. Pairs = red-green,
blue-yellow, black- white (light-dark).
 Auditory sense
Sounds are formed when objects vibrate, thus,
the sound waves set-up by these vibrating bodies
are transmitted through the air to the ear drum.
 Process of hearing:
1. Outer Ear
 The concha/pinna is the external ear part that assembles
the sound vibrations to the auditory canal/ meatus to the
eardrum.

4. Middle Ear
 The ear drum vibrates and transmits sound waves to the
three small bones
 Hammer(malleus)
 Anvil(incus)
 Stirrups(stapes)

10. Inner Ear

2 structures:
l. Sem-circular canal
m. Cochlea which contains the sensitive structure of hearing.
 Auditory Phenomena:
Dimensions of tone:
2. Pitch – depends on the number of vibrations per second.

4. Loudness – correlated with the amplitude of sound waves

- the degree of displacement of the vibrations from its source.

7. Timbre – tonal quality of sound and the complexity of vibrations.

h) Noise
i) Musical harmony

11. Resonance – occurs when another object vibrates as the result of

regular impulses sent out by another vibrating body.

13. Masking – interference of one sensory stimulus by another.

 Theories of Hearing
1. Place Theory of pitch – each part of the basilar membrane is so
attuned that it responds only to one frequency.

3. Valley Theory – suggests that the frequency of stimulus may be

represented by fibers in the auditory nerve responding
independently that the frequency is represented by the composite
valley.

5. Frequency Theory – assumes that neural impulses arising in the

organ of corti are activated by the basilar membrane of vibration
rather than the source.

7. Travelling Wave Theory – when a sound of a given frequency

enters the ear, a wave travels along the basilar membrane and
displaces it at a maximum amount at a certain point.
 Olfaction
(Odor sense)
Gaseous particles which the nose smells
in order to be perceived. Smell has more
direct route to the brain.
 Phenomena of Olfaction
 The stronger the sensation of odor, the more it somes in
contact with the organ of smell.

C. Olfactory Adaptation – occurs after being subjected to the

same kind of odor for a specific time.

E. Impaired Olfactory Sensitivity – This is the effects of

smoking, colds, etc. blocking the odor which comes in-
contact with epithelial cells.
 Theories of Olfaction

1. Traditional theory – odorous substances give off gaseouos

particles which stimulates the nose.

3. Radiation Theory – states that the Olfactory Receptors

radiate a variety of wave-length bands and that different
vapors, when entering the nostrils, absorb different bands.
 Gustation
(Taste Qualities)

 Stimuli of taste are soluble substances in the

saliva.
 Composed of 4 known taste qualities which are:
3. Sweet
4. Salty
5. Sour
6. bitter
 The Tongue

 Circumvallate Papillae – for

bitter taste (back of the
tounge)

 Fungiform Papillae – sour

ans sweet (sides and tips)
 Gustatory Phenomena
 The sense of taste is further
complicated by the fact that one
taste may counteract by the
other.
 Doesn’t only involve the sense of
taste but also sensations like
pressure, warmth, cold, pain,
and odors.
 Gustatory sense is usually
affected by the other senses.
 Sensations of the taste buds are
carried to the central nervous
system by 3 cranial nerves:
5. Facial
6. Glosso-Pharyngeal
7. Vagus nerves
 Somesthesia
(skin sense)
4 different skin senses
2. Pressure
3. Touch
4. Temperature
5. Pain
 These senses differ from the sensitivity of
stimulation within certain areas of the
body/skin.
Relative Frequencies of Skin sense in
descending order:
1. Pain – the immediate stimulus of pain is injury to tissues.

3. Pressure – greatly varies for different parts of the body.

- caused by the deforming/bending of the skin.

6. Cold – temperature ranges from 10 to 30C

8. Warmth – “ “ “ 35 to 70C

Phenomenon of Somesthesia:
 Adaptation to pressure is rapid while pain is rather slow.
Perception
Perception can be defined as the active process
of selecting, organizing, and interpreting the
information brought to the brain by the
senses.
 Gestalt Principles of
Perceptual Organization

1. figure-ground - this is the fundamental way we

organize visual perceptions. When we look at an
object, we see that object (figure) and the
background (ground) on which it sits.

3. simplicity/pragnanz (good form) - we group

elements that make a good form. However, the
idea of "good form" is a little vague and subjective.
Most psychologists think good form is what ever is
easiest or most simple.
1. proximity - nearness=belongingness. Objects that are close to
each other in physical space are often perceived as belonging
together.

3. similarity - As you probably guessed, this one states that

objects that are similar are perceived as going together.

5. continuity - we follow whatever direction we are led.

7. common fate - elements that move together tend to be

grouped together.

9. closure - we tend to complete a form when it has gaps.

 Illusions

an incorrect perception caused

by a distortion of visual
sensations.
A. Reversible Figures - ambiguous sensory information that
creates more than 1 good form.

 The shaded circles seem to

form an X made of spheres.
But if you rotate the image
180°, the same circles form
an X made of cavities, since
the brain assumes that
light comes from above.
A. Impossible Figures -
objects that can be
represented in 2-
dimensional pictures but
can not exist in 3-
dimensional space
despite our perceptions.
THE PERCEPTION
OF PAIN
Pain is an unpleasant yet important function for
survival: warning system (but not all pain is
needed for survival).
 There are two different pathways to the
brain on which pain can travel:

2. fast pathways - registers localized pain (usually sharp pain)

and sends the information to the cortex in a fraction of a
second. EX. - cut your finger with a knife.

6. slow pathways - sends information through the limbic

system which takes about 1-2 seconds longer than directly
to the cortex (longer lasting, aching/burning).
 Factors in Pain Perception
1. expectations - research shown that our expectations about
how much something will hurt can effect our perception.

 Melzack - indicated that believing that something will be very

painful helps us prepare for it.

5. personality - people with negative types of personalities often

have more pain.

7. mood - bad moods, angry, unhappy, etc, can lead to the

experience of increased pain.

So, it seems that our brains can regulate, control,

determine, and even produce pain.
 THEORIES OF PAIN
PERCEPTION
1. Gate Control Theory (Melzack & Walls, 1965) - incoming pain
must pass through a "gate" located in the spinal cord which
determines what information about pain will be sent to the
brain. So, it can be opened to allow pain through or closed to
prevent pain from being perceived.

 The Gate - actually a neural network controlled by the brain.

Located in an area of the spinal cord called the Substansia
Gelatinosa. There are two types of nerve fibers in this area:
D. large - sends fast signals and can prevent pain by closing
the gate.

F. small - sends slower signals which open the gate. So - when

pain occurs it is because the large fibers are off and the
small are on, opening the gate.

 Since the gate is controlled by the brain, he factors discussed

earlier (expectations, mood, personality) influence the
functioning of the gate.