Escolar Documentos
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Dr. Diana Casper
Director, Neurosurgery Lab
Montefiore Medical Center and
The Albert Einstein College of Medicine
The Bronx, New York
Lecture Overview
• Historical perspective
• Neural induction, histogenesis, migration
• Brain morphogenesis
• Synapse formation
• Cell death
• Postdevelopmental neural plasticity
• Developmental abnormalities
• Brain repair?
Phases of Brain Development
• Induction
– Determination of cells that will become nervous tissue
• Proliferation
– Neurogenesis, gliogenesis
• Migration
– Location of cells in appropriate brain areas
• Differentiation
– Development of neurons into particular type
• Synaptogenesis
– Formation of appropriate synaptic connections, strengthening of synapses in
use, weakening of unused synapses
• Selective cell death
– Elimination of neuronsWrong connections? Superfluous? Weak?
• Neural plasticity
– Learning, memory, regeneration, repair
Early work on neural induction
• Hans Spemann
– Experimental embryology
– Showed that tissues needed to interact to form nervous system
– Discovered neural organizerthe dorsal lip of the blastopore (1920’s)
• Viktor Hamburger (19002001)
– “Our real teacher has been and still is the embryo, who is, incidentally, the only teacher who is
always right." Viktor Hamburger
– Studied with Spemann in Freiburg, then with Dr. Frank Lillie in Chicago. Worked >50 years
at Washington University in St. Louis. His early studies on axon growth led him to postulate
that growth factors directed this process. Discovered NGF, programmed cell death.
• Rita LeviMontalcini
– identified the “nerve growth factor” (1950’s)
– necessary for the survival of sensory, but not motor neurons
• Salome Waelsch (19072007)
– Founder of developmental genetics. Trained with Hans Spemann in Freiberg
– Studies genes responsible for developmentTlocus in micefailure to form posterior neural
tube in 1930’s, (LC Dunn’s lab). Most people did not believe that genes were responsible for
development. Between 1938 and 1949 she identified many genes that participated in
developmentnote that at this time, people were still arguing whether the nucleus or the
cytoplasm were the basis of heredity. She did not get to examine gene products, the
biochemistry of the mutations, until the 70’s.
Neural Induction
• Gastrulation: http://worms.zoology.wisc.edu/frogs/gastx
– polarity of embryo
– 3 cell layers
• Induction:
– mesoderm + ectoderm
= neuroepithelium
• Mechanism:
– growth factors (e.g.
bFGF)
Illustration from Jeff Radel (with permission)
Neural induction occurs with
gastrulation
• During gastrulation the blastula flattens
and cells on the surface fold inward
(invaginate) to form three layers: an
outer layer (ectoderm), an inner layer
(endoderm), and an intermediate layer
(mesoderm).
Illustration from Jeff Radel (with permission)
Neurulation
• Mesoderm forms notocord
• Overlying ectoderm
becomes neuroectoderm
• Invaginates and forms
tube
• Subpopulation neural crest
cells begin to migrate
Neural Crest Cells
• Migrate in response to cues obtained by
cellcell interactions and factors secreted by
somites, aorta, mesenchyme, target sites,
and autocrine factors
• Path of migration and target location
determine what they become (position
dependent cues)
Neural crest cells migrate to different regions
and differentiate into many diverse cell types
Schwann cell Neural crest Muscles/cartilage/bone
in head and neck
progenitor
LIF Stem glucocorticoids
cell
bFGF
factor
Sensory neuron
Sympathetic Melanocyte Chromaffin Cell
progenitor progenitor
NGF CNTF
glucocorticoids
Closure of the neural tube.
• Failure to close
neural tube
– Spinabifida
– Anencephaly
http://www.med.unc.edu/embryo_images/unitnervous/
From neural tube closure to 3
vesicle stage
http://home.iprimus.com.au/rboon/StagesofBrainDevelopment.htm
Development of spinal cord,
somites, sensory placodes
• Sensory neurons of the PNS are located
dorsal to the sulcus limitans, and are
born after the motor neurons. The
mesoderm forms the somites, 31 pairs of
cell clusters located to each side of the
neural tube.
• The somites produce skeletal muscles,
as well as the vertebrae, the ribs, and the
deep layer of the skin (the dermis).
• Somites form along the anteroposterior
axis of the embryo, in a repeated pattern
called segmentation. Segmentation in
the human body can be seen in the
pattern of the somatic dermatomes.
Illustration from Jeff Radel (with permission)
Nodes and somites form around
neural tube
• The sensory placodes are otic placode
produced from the ectoderm in (ear)
the head region of the embryo.
Each placode will form a optic placode
specific sense organ. (eye) somites
• Interestingly, the nasal nasal
(olfactory) placode gives rise placode
to GnRH (gonadotropin
releasing hormone) neurons in
the hypothalamusthey
migrate from outside the CNS
into the brain
Illustration from Jeff Radel (with permission)
Development of the Meninges
• Mesenchyme surrounding the neural tube
produces:
– pia mater
– arachnoid mater
– dura mater
• Subarachnoid space forms from a cavity in
mesenchyme
Molecular mediators of neural induction:
(note that this is not an exhaustive list)
• Retinoic acid:
–receptors are intracellular
–complexes bind to DNA, regulating transcription (e.g. hox, shh)
–severe gross morphological defects from deficiency or excess
• Growth factors:
–Fibroblast growth factors (FGF’s)
• receptors are tyrosine kinases, and modulated by heparan sulfate
–Transforming growth factor beta (TGFβ) family
• bone morphogenetic proteins (BMP’s) (induce osteoblasts from mesoderm)
– receptors are serine kinases
– induce epithelial phenotype unless intercepted by noggin and chordin
–Wnt
• named after the “wingless” phenotype in drosophila
• participates in neural induction, differentiation (forebrain, neural crest, and cerebellum)
–Sonic Hedgehog
• Determines ventral structures of neural tube (e.g. motor neurons)
–Delta and notched
Polarization of Neuroepithelium
• The neuroepithelium is polarized by the notocord. The region closest
to the notocord becomes the “floorplate”. The region at the opposite
end forms the “roofplate” and cells lateral to the roofplate become the
neural crest, which migrate and become sensory and autonomic
ganglia, adrenal chromaffin cells, and nonneuronal cells
• Polarization, segmentation and differentiation mediated by:
– Diffusable signals (polarity, segmentation, determination)
– Form gradients as well as boundaries
– Neurotrophic factors (FGF, EGF, BDNF,TGFβ, CNTF, BMP’s and many
others)
• Their receptors are protein kinases
– Transcription factorsretinoic acid, homeobox genes
From Purves
Neural Tube: Cellular and
Molecular Events
Brain Morphogenesis
• 3 vesicle stageuneven proliferation and migration cause bulging (3
vesicles) and flexion (cephalic and cervical flexures).
• Prosencephalon (forebrain) becomes:
– Telencephalon gives rise to cortex, hippocampus, and basal ganglia
(ganglionic eminence), basal forebrain, and olfactory bulb
– Diencephalon (thalamus, hypothalamus, optic cups)
– genetic or environmental insultsexcessive vitamin A, alcohol,
thalidomide, cholesterol altered metabolism, dietary insufficiency (folic
acid), hypothyroidism causes a failure of to differentiate into forebrain
• Mesencephalon (midbrain) gives rise to
– Tectum: superior and inferior colliculi
– Tegmentumsubstantia nigra, etc
• Rhombencephalon (hindbrain) becomes
– Metencephalon (rostral portion, cerebellum and pons)
– Myelencephalon (caudal portion, medulla)
Brain Morphogenesis
http://home.iprimus.com.au/rboon/StagesofBrainDevelopment.htm
Homeotic Genes
• Clustered on multiple
chromosomes
• Encode homeobox
proteinstranscription
factors
• These factors regulate
many genes involved
in pattern formation
http://www
nmr.cabm.rutgers.edu/photogallery/proteins/htm/page20.
htm
Homeobox genes control development of
entire body parts
• Transcription factors
http://www.mun.ca/biology/scarr/Antennapedia_mutant.htm
From Purves
Mesencephalon and Rhombencephalon
10day mouse embryo, approximate human age 5 weeks
http://www.med.unc.edu/embryo_images/unitnervous/nerv_htms/nerv016.htm
Rhombomeres
• Segmentation of myelencephalon
• Homeobox genes differentially expressed
• Come in pairs
• Cranial nerves arise from specific locations
Anteriorposterior segmentation:
Homeobox genes
Single mutations in pattern development
genes result in deletion of entire brain part
Homeoboxlike transcription factors control
development of forebrain and midbrain
Proliferation and Histogenesis
• How do we generate 100 billion neurons and
at least that number of glia?
• Proliferation and arrangement of
neuroepithelium (ventricular zone) as it
grows. Pseudostratified epithelium
• 250,000 neurons per minute
• Neurons migrate insideout in peripheral
structuresoutside in in deeper structures
• Neurons born first, then glia http://www.mouseatlas.org/data/
• Process orchestrated by growth factors mouse/libraries/SM052/view
• Differentiated neurons are postmitotic An intact sagittal cryosection of
telencephalon at embryonic day
• Some glia proliferate when activated (E) 12.5 was stained with cresyl
• Stem cells in the adult brainElizabeth violet. SVZ/VZ = subventricular
and ventricular zone; LV =
Gould, Cynthia ShannonWeickert, Fred lateral ventricle; D = dorsal; V =
Gage ventral; R = rostral.
• The brain is hollow
• Billions of neurons and
glia will fill in this
hollowness
• But, the brain remains
hollow throughout life
• Why?
Neurogenesis
http://home.iprimus.com.au/rboon/StagesofBrainDevelopment.htm
http://www.med.unc.edu/embryo_
images/unitnervous/
• Neural precursors are born in the ventricular zone and cell
bodies move towards pial surface to replicate DNA
How do we know when cells are
born?
• Birthdating
– 3[H]thymidine
– BrdU (bromodeoxyuridine, CldU, IdU)
• Label cells at a specific time of gestation
– dividing cells will incorporate the label
• their progeny will have progressively weaker signals
• Stop experiment at a specified time
– labeled cells were born when label added and have
migrated and differentiated.
Determination and Differentiation
• What’s the difference?
– determination precedes differentiation
– studied by transplanting tissue from one animal into another of a
different ageaxolotl and “fate mapping”c. elegans
• results show that there are developmental “windows”periods during
which development is influenced by the environment
• Generation of distinct neuronal phenotypes (morphology,
neurotransmitter content, receptor profile, connectivity)
depends on:
– when cells were born
– where cells were born
• How does this happen?
– cellcell contact
– transcription factors
– growth factor gradients
Examples of factors that control development
• Neural Induction
– bFGF, noggin, chordin
• Polarization
– shh, notch, TGFβ (BMP’s)
• Segmentation
– wnt, hox
• Neurogenesis/gliogenesis
– BMPs, bHLH, notch
• Migration
– nCAM
• Differentiation
– CNTF, PDGF
How do neurons/astrocytes/oligo’s develop?
www.ucl.ac.uk/.../ Richardsonglial.htm
How do oligodendroglia
develop?
PDGFRa + oligodendrocyte progenitors in the embryonic mouse forebrain. In the forebrain (lower left), a
cluster of PDGFRa +cells appears in the ventral diencephalon (anterior hypothalamic neuroepithelium)
before E13 (arrow). These cells subsequently proliferate and migrate into the dorsal forebrain including
the developing cortex (Cx) before birth (not shown). At higher magnification (lower right) it can be seen
that the migratory cells are intensely labelled PDGFRa + cells (arrows) that develop within the initial
cluster of less strongly labelled neuroepithelial cells (asterisk). MGE, medial ganglionic eminence; LGE,
lateral ganglionic eminence.
www.ucl.ac.uk/.../ Richardsonglial.htm
The Spinal Cord develops from
the neural tube
The cells of the neural tube form three layers, a ventricular layer of undifferentiated,
proliferating cells, a mantle layer of differentiating neurons that will form the gray matter of
the spinal cord, and a marginal layer that contains nerve fibers and will be the white matter.
The dorsal portion of the neural tube is termed the alar plate and forms the sensory area; the
ventral portion is termed the basal plate and forms the motor area of the spinal cord.
http://www.med.unc.edu/embryo_images/unitnervous/
Development of dorsal root
ganglia and motor neurons
Motor axons grow out from the neurons in the basal plate, while cells in the dorsal root
ganglia extend sensory fibers both centrally and peripherally.
http://www.med.unc.edu/embryo_images/unitnervous/
Myelencephalon: Medulla
http://www.med.unc.edu/embryo_images/unitnervous/nerv_htms/nerv016.htm
Metencephalon: Cerebellum
http://www.med.unc.edu/embryo_images/unitnervous/nerv_htms/nerv016.htm
Cerebellum
• Controlled by isthmic organizer at border between
mesencephalon and metencephalon (R1)
– FGF8 and wnt1 are expressed here
• Rhombic lip of metencephalon cells migrate here, and
each side joins over the 4th ventricle
– Purkinje cells and deep cerebellar nuclei born first
– External granule cell layer (EGL) born later and migrate internally
through the Purkinje cell layer to the internal granule cell layer
(IGL)
– Cerebellum continues to develop after birth
• months/years in humans
• differs with the need to ambulatehorse cerebellum develops at a
more accelerated pace than humans
Cerebellum
Species: Mouse
Day Gestation: 14
Approx. Human Age: 9 weeks
View: Sagittal Cut
The relationship of the cerebellar plate to the choroid plexus, projecting into
the roof of the fourth ventricle.
http://www.med.unc.edu/embryo_images/unitnervous/nerv_htms/nerv016.htm
Migration
• Radial glia
– cortex, cerebellum, hippocampus, spinal cord (not present in all brain areas)
– span the pial to lumenal surface and act as scaffolds on which postmitotic neurons can climb to their
destinations
• Layered structures generally develop insideout newer neurons migrate through older, deeper
layers
– however, neurons can also migrate tangentiallye.g. cortex (Cepko)
• Molecules that participate in migration
– Growth factors (bFGFHatten)
– Cell adhesion molecules (CAM’s)
– Extracellular matrix (laminin, Slaminin)
– Most of these factors also participate in axonal growth
Midbrain
• Develops from midbrain vesicle
• Cavity shrinks to form cerebral aqueduct
• Tectumalar plate dorsal to aqueduct
– gives rise to superior and inferior colliculi
• Tegmentumbasal plate (ventral)
– gives rise to 3rd and 4th cranial nerves, red nuclei,
substantia nigra, reticular formation
• Basis pedunculi bulge out carrying corticofugal
fiber tracts
Diencephalon: thalamus, hypothalamus
Optic vesicle is at the junction between telencephalon and diencephalon
Alar plate gives rise to thalamus and hypothalamus, but note that not all thalamic
neurons originate from the diencephalone.g. pulvinar nucleus (from
telencephalon).
http://www.med.unc.edu/embryo_images/unitnervous/
Cerebral Cortex, Hippocampus,
and Basal Ganglia
http://www.med.unc.edu/embryo_im
ages/unitnervous/
Expnding cerebral hemispheres surrounding the lateral ventricles arise at the beginning of the 5th week.
Choroid plexus is formed by invading vascular mesoderm
Ganglionic eminence gives rise to basal ganglia
Lateral thickening (not shown) gives rise to hippocampus
Cerebral Cortex
• Cells derived from dorsal prosencephalon (cortical
rudiment), and the “ganglionic eminence”, which
also gives rise to the basal ganglia
• 6 layers
• New neurons migrate through layers of older
neurons
– Development is “inside out”
– Extensive enlargement from vesicle stage
– Sulci and gyri are formed by uneven proliferation rates
Cerebral Cortex
The rostralmost portion of the prosencephalon, the telencephalon,
expands posteriorly and laterally as the cerebral hemispheres.
http://www.med.unc.edu/embryo_images/unitnervous/
Cerebral Cortex
With further expansion, the cereberal hemispheres cover the lateral aspect of the
diencephalon,
mesencephalon and the rostral
portion of the metencephalon.
Development of Commissures
• Anterior commissure develops first,
connecting olfactory bulbs and temporal
cortices on both sides
• Next, the fornix, connecting hippocampi
• The corpus callosum develops third,
connecting the frontal lobes of both sides,
and later, the parietal lobes
Pituitary
The adenohypophysis (anterior lobe) is derived from the stomodeum, called Rathke's Pouch and
the neurohypophysis (pars nervosa) is derived from the infundibulum in the diencephalon.
http://www.med.unc.edu/embryo_images/unitnervous/nerv_htms/nerv016.htm
Synaptogenesis
• Axonal/dendritic growth
• Pre and postsynaptic specialization
• Synaptic reinforcement
Axonal growth
• First observed by Harrison in early
1900’s
• Initiated by axonal growth cone
–Axon
• growth requires extension of cytoskeleton
• tubulin organized into microtubules
–Lamelipodium
• sheetlike structure
• tubulin monomers
• Gactin http://www.mcgill.ca/crn/images/
–Filipodia
• processes that grow out from lamelipodium
• Factin
• These structures search for cues
provided by pioneer neurons or
extracellular environment
–cell adhesion molecules, transcription
factors, extracellular matrix
–partial decussation of retinal axons is
established in the retina and reinforced by
www2.umdnj.edu/
www.anatomy.unimelb.edu.au
glia in the optic chiasm. zhlabweb/overview.ht
m
What governs axonal growth?
• Involve neuronneuron, neuronglia, and neuronmesenchymal cell interactions
either directly, or via secreted molecules
– Extracellular matrix/Integrins
• Laminins, collagens, and fibronectin form polymers
• Integrins bind laminins, etc., and signal intracellular messengers (Ca, IP3, kinases)
– Cell adhesion molecules
• CAM’s (Ca independent, L1, act through cytoplasmic PK’s) and cadherins (Ca dependent;
APC/betacatenin pathway).
• Present on axons, growth cones, and neighboring cells
• Serve as ligands and receptors
– Ephrins/receptors
– “tropic” factors: factors that attract axonal growth, also factors that repel
• Netrinshomology to extracellular matrix molecules, but attached to cellsreceptors
(DCCdeleted in colorectal cancer)localized to floorplatedefine the midline,
encouraging some axons to cross
– Repellant factors:
• slit and robo
• NoGoa component of myelin that inhibits axonal growth into sites of injury
• Semaphorins/receptors include plexins and neuropilinscause collapse and retraction of
growth cones
Types of Growth Factors
From Purves
How do synapses interact with
appropriate targets?
• “Chemoaffinity hypothesis”
– developed in fish retinotectal projections by Sperry
• axons from retinal ganglion cells possess specific receptors for
target molecules on specific cells in superior colliculus
• Target identification is actually achieved by
concentration gradients of ephrins in targets and
receptors (tyrosine kinases) on incoming axons
– repulsive axon guidance signals (RAGS) are also
ephrins
– commissures
– neural crest
Synapse Formation
• How do sympathetic afferents synapse on appropriate targets?
– “should I stay or should I go?”
• Enervation is somewhat plastic
– “love the one you’re with” (relative promiscuity)
• Choice of enervation mediated by cell adhesion molecules
– ephrins, cadherins (positive and negative)
– DSCAM38,000 isoforms (protocadherins in mammals?)
– agrins (proteoglycans), basal laminasynaptic specializations can form in the
absence of either cellular component (neuromuscular junctions), also β2−
laminin
• Postsynaptic specialization
– mediated by agrin (secreted by presynaptic elements)
– Target cells reciprocate by secreting β2laminins
Synaptic Modeling
•Refinement is needed to establish
the right number of synapses
–Synaptic “competition,” requiring
synaptic activity
• Asynchronous input is eliminated
destabilized
• One axon “wins” and “takes over” the
target
• All targets are correctly enervated
– convergence vs. divergence (1 to
100,000)
– affects axonal and dendritic morphology
•Remodeling continues throughout
life
•Neurotrophic factors are involved
NGF
• Identified by Rita LeviMontalcini (in Hamburger’s lab) in 1950’s
found that sarcoma tumor cells supported growth of sympathetic
neurons and sensory ganglia
• Pleiotrophic functions: differentiation, growth, survival in vitro and
function in vivo
• Role in development established definitively by applying exogenous
factor, immunoneutralization, demonstrating NGF mRNA in target,
and localizing NGF receptors to neurons
– Note that NGF is expressed after axons project to their targets
• One member of neurotrophin family (BDNF, NT3, NT4/5) that act
on different sets of neurons(e.g. NGF/sympathetic; BDNF/sensory)
• Other families: EGF, neuregulins, FGF, TGF−β (GDNF), etc. etc.
• Expressed in neuronal, neural, and nonneural tissue
How neurotrophic factors work
• Bind to extracellular receptors (for neurotrophins: Trks and p75)
– Tyrosine/serine/threonine kinases
– activate cellular signal transduction cascades (other kinases, etc.)
• Short term effects directly in cytoplasm (activating or
deactivating other receptors, cytoskeletal changes)
• Longer effects on patterns of gene expressionvia kinases and
transcription factors
• Hypothesis: deficiency in neurotrophic factors lead to
neurodegenerative diseases (S. Appel)
Neurotrophins act on exclusive
neuronal subpopulations
Neurotrophin receptors
• p75 receptor
mediates cell death
(interacts with
sortilin and pro
NGF)
• Trk receptors
mediate
neurotrophic effects
(survival,
www.ebi.ac.uk/interpro/ potm/2005_8/Page.htm differentiation)
TrkA Receptor
SIGMA-ALDRICH
Developmental/Programmed Cell Death
• The original scientists who discovered apoptosis
coined this term meaning literally a "falling off,"
as the petals fall off a flower or the leaves fall
from a tree. The cell death machinery is a set of
genes which stand ever ready to selfdestruct.
• Active processsuiciderequires gene expression
• Mediated by neurotrophic factors
– Limited availability imposes a competition for survival
Programmed Cell Death
SIGMA-ALDRICH
Windows of specific aspects of
development
Critical periods
Developmental
Events/Abnormalities
GESTATIONAL AGE DEVELOPMENTAL EVENT RELATED DEFECTS
24 - 26 days anterior neuropore closure anencephaly
26 - 28 days posterior neuropore closure spina bifida
33 - 35 days five vesicle stage holoprosencephaly
1 - 5.5 months neuronal proliferation microcephaly
1 month - postnatal 3 - 5 months neuronal migration migrational defects
2.5 - 4.5 months corpus callosum agenesis of corpus collosum
2.5 - 5 months primary cerebral fissures lissencephaly
5 months - 1 year postnatal glial proliferation microcephaly
7-9 months secondary and tertiary fissures pachygyria
Mutations in genes that control development
cause a wide range of syndromes
• Hydrocephalus
– X chromosome (L1)
• FragileX
– trinucleotide repeats in fragile X protein, destabilizing dendrites and
synapses
• Aniridia (affects eye development), and Waardenburg syndrome
– PAX6 and PA3, which encode transcription factors
• Autism
– wnt mutations
• Down’s syndrome
– trisomy 21
• Schizophrenia?
– heregulin gene (growth factor)
Agents that affect brain development
• thyroid hormone
• alcohol
• thalidomide
• retinoic aciddeficiency or surplus
causes developmental defects
Myelination
• PNS myelinated by Schwann cells
• CNS myelinated by oligodendroglia
• In spinal cord
– begins at cervical region at 4 months of gestation, proceeding
caudally
• In brain
– begins at 6 months in the basal ganglia
– myelinated sensory fibers enter from the spinal cord
– Brain is largely unmyelinated at birth
– Infant movement restricted to mostly reflexes, like sucking,
respiration, and swallowing
– After birth, corticofugal fibers begin to myelinate
– Myelination may not be finished until puberty
Postnatal Development
• Majority of brain development (morphological
and histological) happens before birth but….
• Postnatal development includes important events:
– Neurogenesis in cerebellum
– Neuronal migration
– Synaptic pruning
– Programmed cell death
– Myelination
– Synaptic plasticity (learning)
Brain Repair?
• Neurotrophic factor therapy
– AD, ALS, PD
– Spinal cord injury, stroke
• Stem cell transplants
– Need to differentiate
– Brain tumors….
• Endogenous stem cells
– Ability to divide and replenish their supply
– Can give rise to astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, and
neurons
– Neuronal precursors are post mitotic
Neural Stem Cells are Present in
Mature Human Brain
• EGFreceptor antibodies identify neural stem cells
• Some of these cells possess markers for the neuronal phenotype
• from Dr. Cynthia ShannonWeickert, Journal of Comparative Neurology, 2000
Neurodegenerative and psychiatric
diseases may be stem cell diseases
The adult neural stem and progenitor cell niche is altered in
amyotrophic lateral sclerosis mouse brain Z Liu and LJ
Martin, J Comp Neurol (2006) 497:468488
Neural stem cell proliferation is decreased in schizophrenia,
but not in depression A Reif, S Fritzen, M Finger, A
Strobel, M Lauer, A Schmitt and KP Lesch, Mol Psych
(2006) 11:514–522
Do we ever stop developing?
I hope not.
Thank you