1

Simplified Reference Model

Application
Transport
Network
Data Link
Physical
Medium
Data Link
Physical
Application
Transport
Network
Data Link
Physical
Data Link
Physical
Network Network
Radio
2
Reference Model
Physical Layer :
Bit Stream to signal conversion
Frequency selection
Generation of carrier frequency
Data modulation over carrier frequency
Data encryption


3
Reference Model
Data Link Layer :
Data Multiplexing
Error detection and correction
Medium Access

In essence :
Reliable point-to-point transfer of data
between sender and receiver.

4
Reference Model
Network Layer :
Connection setup
Packet routing
Handover between networks
Routing
Target device location
Quality of service (QoS)
5
Reference Model
Transport Layer :
Establish End-to-End Connection
Flow control
Congestion control
TCP and UDP
Applications Browser etc.
6
Reference Model
Application Layer:
Multimedia applications
Applications that interface to various
kinds of data formats and transmission
characteristics
Applications that interface to various
portable devices

7



Overlay Networks - the global goal
regional
metropolitan area
campus-based
in-house
vertical
handover
horizontal
handover
integration of heterogeneous fixed and
mobile networks with varying
transmission characteristics
8

Frequency Ranges
WIRELESS TRANSMISSION
1 Mm
300 Hz
10 km
30 kHz
100 m
3 MHz
1 m
300 MHz
10 mm
30 GHz
100 m
3 THz
1 m
300 THz
visible light VLF LF MF HF VHF UHF SHF EHF infrared UV
optical transmission
coax cable twisted
pair
VLF = Very Low Frequency UHF = Ultra High Fequency
LF = Low Frequency SHF = Super High Frequency
MF = Medium Frequency EHF = Extra High Frequency
HF = High Frequency UV = Ultraviolet Light
VHF = Very High Frequency


wave length , speed of light c ~ 3x10
8
m/s,
frequency f
9
Frequencies
kHz Range (Low and Very Low
frequencies)
Used for short distances using twisted copper wires
Several KHz to MHZ (Medium and High
Frequencies)
For transmission of hundreds of radio stations in the
AM and FM mode
Use co-axial cables
Transmission power is several kW.
10
Frequencies
Several MHz to Terra Hz Range (VHF and
UHF)
Typically 100 MHz to 800 MHz and
extending to terraHz)
Conventional Analog TV (174-230 MHz
and 470-790 MHz)
DAB Range (220 1472 MHz)
DTV (470 872 MHz)
Digital GSM (890-960MHz)

11
Frequencies
3G Mobile Systems (1900-2200 MHz)

Super High(SH) and Extremely Super
High(ESH)
Hundreds of GHz
Fixed Satellite Services
Close to infra-red.

12
Frequencies
For Several TerraHz :
Optical Transmission

Why do we need very high transmission
frequencies?
The information content in video, satellite
data etc is enormous.
If we need to accommodate many signals
simultaneously, we need a high bit rate
which in turn demands high frequency.
13
REGULATIONS
International Telecommunications Union
(ITU), Geneva responsible for world-wide
coordination of telecommunications
activity.
ITU R (Radio Communications sector)
handles standardization in Wireless
sector.
14
REGULATIONS

ITU-R
Region-1
Europe, Middle East,
Former Russia, Africa
Region-2
Greenland, N & S
America
Region-3
Australia, New
Zealand
15
Frequency Allocation

Europe USA Japan
Cellular
Phones
GSM 450-457, 479-
486/460-467,489-
496, 890-915/935-
960,
1710-1785/1805-
1880
UMTS (FDD) 1920-
1980, 2110-2190
UMTS (TDD) 1900-
1920, 2020-2025
AMPS, TDMA, CDMA
824-849,
869-894
TDMA, CDMA, GSM
1850-1910,
1930-1990
PDC
810-826,
940-956,
1429-1465,
1477-1513

Cordless
Phones
CT1+ 885-887, 930-
932
CT2
864-868
DECT
1880-1900
PACS 1850-1910, 1930-
1990
PACS-UB 1910-1930
PHS
1895-1918
JCT
254-380
Wireless
LANs
IEEE 802.11
2400-2483
HIPERLAN 2
5150-5350, 5470-
5725
902-928
IEEE 802.11
2400-2483
5150-5350, 5725-5825
IEEE 802.11
2471-2497
5150-5250
Others RF-Control
27, 128, 418, 433,
868
RF-Control
315, 915
RF-Control
426, 868

16
REGULATIONS

PDC : Personal Digital Cellular
NMT : Nordic Mobile Telephone
DECT : Digital Enhanced Cordless
Telephone
PACS : Personal Access Communications
System
17
SIGNALS

A sine wave is represented as
g(t) = A
t
sin (.t + )

Here, A
t :
Maximum amplitude
w : angular frequency = 2f
: Phase Displacement
18
SIGNALS
Different representations of signals
amplitude (amplitude domain)
frequency spectrum (frequency domain)
phase state diagram (amplitude M and phase in
polar coordinates)



A [V]

I= M cos
Q = M sin

A [V]
t[s]
19
Signals
According to fourier
series, it is possible to
reconstruct the original
signal using the sine
and cosine functions.

G(t) = C +
) 2 cos( ) 2 sin(
1 1
nft b nft a
n n
n n t t


=

=
+
In the above eqn, C represents the DC component.
20
Signals
As n varies, increasing number of
harmonics are added to the signal
representation.
As n approaches infinity, the original
signal is truly represented.
The given signal has to be modulated
over a career frequency.
21
Antenas
An Antenna aids in transforming a wired
medium to a wireless medium
Antennas couple electromagnetic energy
to the space and from the space TO and
FROM a wire/coaxial cable.

22
ISOTROPIC RADIATOR ANTENNA
Theoretical reference antenna is the
isotropic radiator.
It emits equal power in all directions.


z y
x
z
y x
23
Antennas
Practical Antennas Exhibit Directional properties.
Thin Centre-fed Dipole:

/2
Dipole consists of two collinear conductors separated by a small feeding
gap.
Generally, the length of the Dipole is half the wavelength of the signal to
be transmitted/received.( = C/f where is is the speed of light {3*10
8
m/s)

24
Wavelength
Forms of electromagnetic radiation like radio waves, light
waves or infrared (heat) waves make characteristic
patterns as they travel through space. Each wave has a
certain shape and length. The distance between peaks
(high points) is called wavelength.


25
Dipole Antenna





When the signal is obstructed by mountains, buildings etc, the power
of the sinal gets weak.
It can be boosted by additional devices.
26
Directional Antenna
Several directional antennas can be combined to form
a sectored antenna.
27
Signal Propagation Range
distance
sender
transmission
detection
interference

Transmission range
communication possible
low error rate
Detection range
detection of the signal
possible
no communication
possible
Interference range
signal may not be
detected
signal adds to the
background noise

28
Path Loss during Transmission
Propagation in free space is always in a straight line like that of light.
Receiving power proportional to 1/d in vacuum much more in
real environments
(d = distance between sender and receiver)
Receiving power additionally influenced by
Fading (frequency dependent)
shadowing
reflection at large obstacles
refraction depending on the density of a medium
scattering at small obstacles
diffraction at edges




29
Path Loss Effects

reflection scattering diffraction shadowing refraction
30
Signal Propagation effects
Signal Penetration through objects :
At lower frequency, the penetration is higher.
At very high frequencies, the transmission
behavior of the wave is close to that of light,

31
Propagation behavior of waves
Ground Wave (<2 MHz): Can follow earths
surface and can propagate long distances
[Submarine communication, AM Radio etc]
Sky Wave (2-30 MHz) : Waves are reflected.
They can bounce back and forth between
ionosphere and earths surface and can travel
around the world.
Line of Sight [>30 MHz) : The waves are bent
by refraction.
32
Multipath Propagation

33

34
Multipath Propagation
Radio waves sent from the sender to the
receiver can travel in a straight line as
well as may reach the destination after
being reflected by several obstacles.
The signal arrives at different times at
the receiver. THIS EFFECT IS CALLED
DELAY SPREAD
35
Multipath Propagation
The original signal gets a spread signal
The order of delays is 2 to 12 micro
secs.
36
Effects of delay spread
Short-pulse signals will be spread into a
broader impulse or several weaker
pulses.
In the fig, the impulse at the sender is
received as three smaller pulses at the
receiver.
Also, the power level of the received
pulses will be low. So, they will be
perceived as noise.
37
Effects-2 of delay spread
Inter Symbol Interference :
The second symbol is separated from
the first in the transmitted signal.
At the receiver, they overlap because of
delays.
If the pulses represent symbols, they will
interfere with each other and there will
be INTER SYMBOL INTERFERENCE.
38
One possible solution
Receiver should know the delay
characteristics of different paths.
Receiver can compensate for the
distortion
Receiver can equalize the signals based
on the channel characteristics.

39
Effects of mobility
Channel characteristics change over time
and location
signal paths change
different delay variations of different signal
parts
different phases of signal parts
quick changes in the power received
(short term fading)

short term fading
long term
fading
t
power
40
Solution for Long Term Fading
Senders can increase/decrease power
on a regular basis so that the received
power is within certain bounds.
41
Long Term Fading
Additional changes in
distance to sender
obstacles further away
slow changes in the average power
received (long term fading)