Disp ersi on C Disp ompen satio ersi on M n Te chn anag eme iques nt s and A

ma P2 n 00 Ve 8E rm E1 a 05 6

ey ks ou 52 Ch 0 v E1 na 8E hi 00 Ab P2 ngra i Dhi 3 Bhav 8EE106 P200

11

Objectives of the Presentation

Chromatic dispersion causes pulses to spread in time, thus can limit the capacity of a system. Thus it discusses the impact of dispersion on optical communication link. Provides an overview of the origin and implications of chromatic dispersion and, Discusses the tolerance of systems toward it.

22

Origin of Chromatic Dispersion

Definition: It is the variation of refractive index of a material with wavelength and is responsible for resolution of white light into its constituent colors. The dispersion can be categorized into four types: a) Single-mode Fibers:
i. ii. iii.

Material Dispersion Waveguide Dispersion Polarized Mode Dispersion (PMD) Intermodal Dispersion

b)

Multi-mode Fibers
.

33

Material Dispersion Characteristics of Fibers

Few Terms: Speed of propagation of monochromatic light in an optical ber:

If the Central Frequency is w, and has a small spectral width around it, then a velocity can be associated with this group of frequencies, known as the Group Velocity. where, N is known as the Group Index

The packet of frequencies corresponding to the pulse will arrive at the output of the ber sometime after the pulse is launched. This delay is the Group Delay, and it is dened as where L is the Fiber Length
44

There are two mechanisms by which the refractive indices can vary with the wavelength of light: the material dispersion and the waveguide dispersion. However, a pulse codemodulated signal has a spread of wavelengths and so experiences a corresponding spread of each of the core, cladding, and effective refractive indices. This means that each pulse experiences a range of speeds as it passes through the optical ber. Sometimes the shorter-wavelength components travel faster than the long-wavelength components; sometimes the opposite occurs. However, in both cases the pulses are broadened in the time domain as they travel in the ber. High-data rate channels have shorter pulses and therefore wider spectral bandwidths. The result is greater broadening. 5 5

Refractive Index and Group Index of SiO2 glass

66

Material Dispersion Parameter, . where is expressed as pico-seconds per nanometre of source bandwidth per kilometre of distance (ps/nm-km).

Material Dispersion of a pure Silica glass ber.

The Change in Pulse Width

77

The material dispersion for silica glass with a step index single-mode ber is given by

For theoretical work a simple equation with two parameters offers a reasonable approximation of . :

where and are the slope at wavelength, respectively

and the zero material dispersion

The Corning single-mode ber SMF-28e+ is a typical example of high-quality modern ber.
88

Key Para SMF met res -28e of + fib er

99

Waveguide Dispersion Characteristics of Fibers

The optical power travels in both the core and the cladding. Light travels faster in the cladding than in the core. This is where effective refractive index (neff) comes into picture to determine the speed of light of the whole guided mode. Two factors dictate the corecladding ratio of guided power. v Difference between the two refractive indices: If similar: light spreads into the cladding to a greater extent, If different: the guided wave is more tightly conned to the core. v Ratio of core diameter to wave-length of light: The mode spreads further into the cladding when this ratio is relatively small. The bers refractive index prole, its core diameter, and the wavelength of light determine the extent to which the guided mode spreads into the cladding, this dictates (neff) , which in turn governs speed of light of the whole guided wave. Thus, given a core diameter and refractive indices, neff varies with the wavelength. The variation is small and is known Waveguide Dispersion .
1010

the

High-capacity optical systems nearly always operate in the fundamental waveguide mode, which has an intensity distribution that is a rotationally symmetrical bell-shaped function (Mynbaef & Scheiner, 2001).

1111

Dispersion as a function of Wavelength

1212

Polarization Mode Dispersion (PMD)

The third component of dispersion in single-mode ber is polarization mode dispersion, or PMD.

Discussed later

1313

Consider a step index multimode ber with two propagating modes:

In M ultimod F ib e e rs

1414

The difference in the delay between the two modes is given by

where,

and, NA stands for the Numerical Aperture of the ber

The r.m.s. broadening of the pulse is given by

1515

Illustration:

Assume that a pulse of nominal width T is launched into the ber. If the differential delay is equal to the pulse width, the output consists of two pulses occupying a total width of 2T.

The receiver will therefore detect two pulses when only one was sent. This effect is called the intermodal dispersion of the ber.

1616

EXAMPLE:

Consider a Multimode Step Index Fibre of 10 km length with a core refractive index of 1.5 and Therefore, r.m.s. pulse broadening is

The maximum transmission bitrate in terms of the pulse r.m.s. width is given by:

Therefore, for usefull.

, the maximum bitrate is 868 Kbit/s, not at all

1717

Can the differential delay for a multimode ber be improved??

If the ight time of a meridional mode is reduced, then the differential delay will also be reduced. This can be achieved with the use of graded index ber. The general equation for the variation of refractive index:

where, - relative refractive index difference, r - axial distance, and a - prole parameter that gives the refractive index prole.

1818

The step index prole is obtained by setting a = Two effects may be observed: I. The axial mode propagates through the area of maximum value of refractive index , thereby being the slowest. II.The meridional modes are bent toward the axis, reducing their ight time.

1919

If electromagnetic theory is employed to analyze the differential delay, the value obtained is

Reduction of the differential delay for step index ber is

The r.m.s. pulse broadening is now given by there is a reduction

For the example shown before, 2020

The maximum bitrate that can be used with this graded index ber is now 434 Mbit/s !!
2020

Chro

mat ic D Miti ispe and high-performance systems ga t i rsio 2121 on n: normally use more than one.

The methods are not mutually exclusive,

Chromatic Dispersion : Mitigation

2222

Electronic Dispersion Compensation (EDC)

It has recently become a topic of active research. The High-speed Application-Specic Integrated Circuits (ASICs) to carry out the necessary processing were not available for application at 10 Gbit/s and 40 Gbit/s until recently. Two categories of EDC : according to whether the operation is performed at the transmitter or at the receiver end of the system.

2323

Dispersion Management: Practical Limitations

v

Estimation error for the actual link CD

The net dispersion of the link can be estimated by either direct dispersion measurement or by fiber length measurement (OTDR). In either case , the estimation error grows with the length of the system. Many networks are composed of mixed fiber types which makes dispersion estimation even more difficult.
v

Offset from the optimum net CD

The optimum net link CD depends on the transmitter bit rate and spectral characteristics. There is also a change in optimum net dispersion with reach in the presence of fiber non-linearity. Any offset between the two results in a OSNR penalty, ultimately limiting the system reach.
2424

Pre-Compensation Tx Electronic Dispersion Compensation

The combination of digital signal processing, high-speed D/A converters, a complex E-field E/O converter and an electro-optic modulator enables implementation of transmitter based electronic dispersion compensation.

2525

Tx EDC: sampling and pre-coding

Up-sampling In order to have sufficient DSP resolution to cover the desired signal spectrum, the incoming data is sampled at the Nyquist rate (T/2). Selecting a modulation format

2626

Some pre-coding schemes which can be used in conjunction with electronic dispersion pre-compensation to optimize for the desired application.

2727

Tx E/O Converter: DPMZ

An electro-optic modulator that controllably exerts both amplitude and phase modulation on the signal in response to commands from Digital Signal Processing (DSP) electronics.

2828

Advantages: Simple EO transfer function It can access all phase states. Disadvantages: The device is not widely used in telecom applications and is somewhat expensive The structure has relatively high optical loss of 10 to 15 dB due to quadrature bias of the outer Mach-Zehnder It typically requires high drive voltages to minimize loss.

2929

Tx E/O Converter: DDMZ

An alternative conguration is the dual-drive Mach-Zehnder modulator

It is lower in cost and imposes a loss of only 3 to 6 dB, but it cannot explore the full combination of phase and amplitude states (McGhan, 2006). Nevertheless, it is a good compromise, especially for use with NRZ signals.
3030

Tx EDC: control and optimization

The CD compensation filter in the transmitter must be set to match the link. The following approaches can be used: 1. User provisioned compensation Requires knowledge of link dispersion (typically +/- 1000 ps/nm) Enables fast reconfiguration Does not require receiver feedback control Eliminates dispersion penalty 2. Automatic discovery and optimization Automatically finds the link net dispersion Eliminates dispersion penalty

3131

Post-Compensation Rx Electronic Dispersion Compensation

This approach provides the ability to very quickly adapt to un-forecasted CD changes. Depending on the implementation, significant gains in CD limited reach can be expected with Rx EDC. Based on simulations, MLSE based EDC is promising for CD compensation.

3232

Rx EDC: MLSE Equalizer

The MLSE (maximum likelihood sequence estimator) uses a fast analogueto-digital converter to digitize raw received data samples. It uses combined probabilities based on received A/D samples and expected incoming bit sequences to map the most likely bit sequence from the raw data..

The highest probability path through the trellis identifies the received bit pattern. In order to compensate for chromatic dispersion, the length of the trellis should be close to the duration of the dispersed pulse. Advantage: Doesnt require expensive and lossy opto-electronic modulators. Disadvantage: In 10-Gbit/s applications, it tends to be limited to system spans of a few hundred kilometres because the required processing grows exponentially with the dispersion that has been accumulated in the system. Therefore, most useful for cost-sensitive applications, such as long-reach PONs (Passive Optical Networks) and metropolitan networks. In contrast, transmitter-end EDC has provided chromatic dispersion compensation for 10-Gbit/s systems of up to 5200 km
3333

3434

Comparison with other Techniques

The key advantage of EDC over optical techniques is cost, for several reasons :

The cost of electronic integrated circuits is commonly lower than that of optical components, especially with volume production. When receiver-end EDC is used, it is possible to integrate the required processors with the receiver circuitry, which leads to space reductions.

Considering the technical nature. Negative-dispersion ber (NDF) (especially DCF for use in modules) has a small effective core area and a relatively high GeO2 content. Therefore, it is more susceptible to nonlinear crosstalk and RBS (Rayleigh Back-Scattering) . Indeed, amplied DCMs can be complicated subsystems

Conclusion: We tentatively suggest that, for national and transoceanic applications, EDC combined with FEC (forward error correction) and alternative modulation formats will reduce but not eliminate the 3535 dependence on NDF and other optical methods.

Abhinav Takes Over

3636

DISP COM ERSI ON PEN SAT TEC ION H NI QUE S MAN AND AGE MEN T

BY ABHINAV CHOUKSEY

INTRODUCTION

PART1

PART2

PART3

PART4

DCFS

FBGS

ALL PASS FILTER

OPTIMIZATION OF DISPERSION MAP

OUT L

I NE

Types of Dispersion

Modal dispersion: different modes propagate at different group velocities. Material dispersion: the index of refraction of the medium changes with wavelength. Waveguide dispersion: index change across waveguide means that different wavelengths have different delays. Polarization mode dispersion: if waveguide is birefringent.

PART-1

DISPERSION COMPENSATED FIBER

Dispersion compensation example

DCF Length Required for Perfect Compensation

In order to provide ideal dispersion compensation in this way, the fiber lengths and dispersion coefficients must obey S1 D1 = S2 D2----------------------(1) where S1 is the total length of the SMF in the link, S2 is the total length of the DCF that must be used to achieve 100% compensation; while D1 and D2 are the dispersion values for the SMF and DCF respectively in order to provide ideal dispersion compensation in this way, the fiber lengths and dispersion coefficients must obey this equation.

Dispersion map

High data rate channels &/ or WDM

Operating with high-data rate channels and/or WDM is a little more complicated. These systems have very broad bandwidth pulses, which means that D varies slightly across the pulse spectrum. In WDM operation each channel experiences a different value of D. In both cases, the consequence is that equation applies only at one particular wavelength; for all others it is merely an approximation.

Over M Channels

Variation of the dispersion coefficients of the PDF over m channels

Consequences for the channels with the most extreme wavelengths.

Dispersion slope

These figures shows the outcome in WDM operation and tells that some channels are not well compensated because equation is not getting satisfied for all the channels. And that equation is applied sufficiently closely Therefore, we must take the dispersion slopes of the two fibers into account and an additional equation must be satisfied. SPDF LPDF = SNDF LNDF --------------(2) where S = dD/dl.

For practical reasons, length of the DCF should be as small as possible. This can be achieved only if the magnitude of dispersion for the DCF is large and has opposite sign to the dispersion parameter of the regular fiber . An optical fiber with a small core diameter and a high-index difference between core and cladding can exhibit such desirable properties. Such a fiber can be manufactured by carefully modifying its index profile and the relative index values such that large negative waveguide dispersion overcomes small positive material dispersion resulting in the net high value of negative dispersion .

To obtain such a relative index, it demands a heavy doping of the fiber core. Typically up to 25% of the core should be germanium which is added to the silica during the manufacturing process. However, such high level of doping increases Rayleigh scattering losses High negative dispersion may also be achieved by decreasing the core radius during manufacturing process; however it will also result in increasing the scattering loss . For this reason, attenuation in a DCF is much higher than in a regular fiber

Due to their higher attenuation, DCFs were not widely used until advent of optical amplifiers around the 1990 after which the development of the DCFs accelerated in pace. Narrower core radius of DCF also causes the optical signal to be more tightly confined. It results in a high level of nonlinear effects in DCF than in regular fiber. Despite of their narrower core, more attenuation and nonlinearity than in a regular fiber, DCFs are being used extensively for dispersion compensation especially in longhaul optical communications.

PROBLEMS IN DCF

When network usage changes (for example, by incorporating additional optical add-drop multiplexers or WDM channels), the dispersion map of the whole system may have to be revised. The small-core waveguide structure of the DCF causes another problem: splicing loss . The DCF has to be spliced at both ends to the relatively large-core transmission fiber and, even with the use of special mode field adaptation techniques. we can anticipate a typical loss of 0.5 dB at each end.

PART-2

Optical Dispersion Compensation: Chirped Fiber Bragg Gratings

Fiber Bragg Gratings

A fiber Bragg grating is a periodic or aperiodic perturbation of the effective refractive index in the core of an optical fiber .Typically, the perturbation is approximately periodic over a certain length of e.g. a few mm or cm and the period is of the order of hundreds of nanometer. Wavelength ref Is given by

Types of Fiber Bragg Grating

Each of them has a very Specific application. a linear variation in the grating period is called a chirp which is used for Dispersion compensation With a changing Grating Period wavelength reflected Changes which give us a Broadened reflected spectrum

If the perturbation is periodic, such as a sinusoid with respect to the length, there will be a very narrow bandwidth reflection of any incident light with a peak wavelength in the glass that is twice the periodicity of the perturbations. However, the structure used in a dispersion compensator is a chirped grating, which is one that has a superposed variation so that the period of the refractive Index changes slowly over the length of the grating. Actually in this case the refractive index perturbations are more closely spaced at one end of the grating than the other.

FBG with a Circulator

In this way, the grating reflects a greater range of wavelengths, as illustrated in the figure. When a pulse enters the chirped grating, its long- and short-wavelength components propagate into the grating to different extents and therefore experience different phase delays. It is thus possible to a good approximation to use the chirped grating to cancel the group delay that the pulse has accumulated during its progress over a span of a transmission fiber.

Figure shows how the chirped FBG is normally used with a circulator to ensure that the reflected pulse can continue on its path through the system.

Advantage over DCF

FBG dispersion compensators offer the advantage over DCMs of being low form factor components that do not contribute significant nonlinear crosstalk. Their loss is dominated by the circulator and is typically 1.5 to 2.5 dB for the double passage of the light. In contrast to DCMs, there is no need to include dedicated amplification. Moreover, chirped FBGs can be incorporated into optical add-drop multiplexers to perform simultaneous channel selection and dispersion compensation.

Challenges

Unfortunately, chirped FBGs operate over a much narrower bandwidth than NDF based solutions and so can only compensate for one or a small number of channels. Three challenges for grating manufacturers are To ensure that the group delay is spectrally uniform (i.e., free from high-frequency ripples). To provide a means, such as a thermal packaging to cancel any wavelength drifting of the reflectance profile. To fabricate the grating with low polarization mode dispersion and polarization dependent loss.

PART -3

ALL PASS FILTERS

All pass filters (APFs)

All Pass filters are used to compensate the chromatic dispersion in wavelength division multiplexed (WDM) optical fiber communication system, where a number of frequencies are interleaved, dispersion is compensated using all pass filters . Response of All pass filters
q q

variable phase response Constant amplitude.

The variable phase response of the APFs makes them to be used as the phase equalizers to compensate the chromatic dispersion. Hence the need of digital filters (all pass filters or raised cosine filters) is realized by which the multiple channels can be compensated with a single device because of the periodic properties of the phase response and impulse response of these filters respectively

These All Pass Filters (APFs) are linear systems, which have an amplitude response that is constant over all frequencies and a phase response that varies with frequency. The period of frequency response of all pass filters is usually referred to as Free spectral range (FSR). Mathematically, the frequency response of a filter is written as H( ) = |H( )| exp[ j ( ) ] --------------(3)

Then for an APF |H( )| = c where c is a constant and ( ) can be made arbitrarily close to any desired phase response.

With this characteristic the nth-order dispersion is evaluated as 1/( FSR)^n, further group delay can be enhanced by adding more number of stages .However it increases loss in the system. Adding stages to the APF help in recovering group delay that is lost when the FSR is Increased.

The dispersion compensation obtained experimentally is D ~ N/( FSR)^2. ^2 -------------------(4)

where N is number of channels and is distance of poles and zeros of the unit circle. The dispersion may be increased by reducing the FSR with the introduction of more number of stages or by reducing the .

For the design of an APF, a four port device with frequency independent matrix elements can be considered. By connecting any one of the outputs through a delay to any one of the inputs a single stage APF can be realized. APF may be implemented using Directional couplers, Since APF gives complexity and increases cost so new class of digital filters called raised cosine filters are now introduced to compensate dispersion.

Why All Pass Filters ????

The traditional techniques like DCFs, FBGs and EDC are not suitable for dispersion compensation in WDM system.

DCFs give high insertion loss, large footprint, and nonlinear distortions when the input signal is high etc. Also for the multiple channels in WDM system, the number of DCFs has to be installed making the system complex and costly. The same problem is with the FBGs which compensate the dispersion by the recompression of an optical signal. For different frequencies different architectures of the FBGs have to be introduced along the fiber link.

Why all pass filters ???????

EDC is rendered ineffective for WDM system since it is complex and also not a direct method of compensation as it involve the optical to electronic and electrical to optical conversions making the WDM communication slow which cant be tolerable in this growing world.

PART-4

Optimization Of residual dispersion map

Dispersion management is one of the effective techniques to reduce the nonlinear impairment in fiber transmission systems, which includes adjusting the amounts of group-velocity dispersion (GVD) compensation after the transmitter (pre compensation), within the repeaters (in-line compensation), and before the receiver (post compensation), Nonlinear fiber effects such as self- and cross-phase modulation combined with the group velocity dispersion result in intensity distortion of the propagating signals in WDM links, limiting the maximum transmission distance. The transmission distances can be increased by optimizing the dispersion map to reduce the impact of nonlinearities.

How a map looks like ???

The parameters that can be adjusted are

1) Amount of pre compensation. 2) Lengths and dispersions of each fiber section used to form the dispersion map. 3) Residual dispersion per map period, and the amount of post compensation.

we are focused on the cumulated GVD at the end of the link. q This residual GVD decreases proportionally to the square of the bit-rate, making it especially critical at high bit-rates. The simplest fiber link that could require an in-line DCF in addition to pre- and post- DCFs is a 2-spans system. Consider an optical fiber link consisting of two 80 km fiber spans along with pre-, inline and post-DCFs, operating at 1550 nm.
q

Study of 2 span fiber system

SMF-1 & SMF-2 ----- represent single mode fiber two spans. DCF-0 ------- dispersion compensated fiber placed at the start of the link. DCF-1 & DCF-2 are placed after SMF-1 & SMF-2 .

setups 1 to 3 are helpful in observing the effects of different locations of DCFs on pulse degradation.

VARIOUS POSSIBLE MAPS ( NETWORK)

1)

2)

3)

4)

Modifying the earlier equation for N span links the residual dispersion d (ps/nm) can be represented as

L --- ---------Length of the fiber D ------------Dispersion [ps/(nm.km)], F,C ----------mean fiber and DCF parameters N ,M ---------total number of SMF spans and DCFs respectively.

Thus, the total required DCF length denoted as given by

is

Table

Optimization
From equation () and parameters in last Table , a 280 km fiber link would require a DCF length of 32 km for 100% compensation. In the following discussions for 2- spans system, the total DCF length of 32 km required for 100% compensation is used for computing the percent dispersion compensation at a given location. Thus 25% DCF length means that 8 km long DCF is placed at that location. For dispersion-map optimization, the length of the DCF at each location will be allowed to vary from 0 to 32 km with a step size of 1 km.

Optimization Procedure

Dispersion compensation can be viewed as a two-step process.

1) The overall compensation amount of the system is selected. 2) Choosing an optimum dispersion-map to achieve the over-all dispersion level selected in the first step. Since the pulse shape also depends upon SPM, this decision making is further complicated by the inclusion of another variable, i.e. the launch power. For simplicity, in this chapter, a system that uses perfect compensation is focused

GIN LL BE N WI AMA ROW MOR TOM

THA NK Y O