Chapte

r
7

Digestion &
Nutrition
 Contents
You will learn...
• the concept of a balanced diet
• the factors that affect energy intake
• the problems of world food supply
• the effects of malnutrition
• the digestive system
• the structure and function of a villus
• the function of the hepatic portal vein
• fats function as storage substances
• the role of the liver
 Diet
fats-sweets
group

dairy products protein-rich

group group

vegetables fruits
group group

grain products
group
 Diet
Food
Foods in the Group Nutrients
Group
Mostly carbohydrates and
Grain Products made with whole
fibres, Vitamin B, iron and
products grains or enriched flour.
protein.
Dark green vegetables
Fruits and (broccoli, spinach) and Most carbohydrates and fibre.
vegetables deep yellow vegetables Various vitamins and minerals
(carrots).
Poultry, eggs, fish, red
Rich in proteins, Vitamin B and
Protein-rich meat, organ meat such as
minerals such as magnesium
food kidneys and liver. Legumes,
and zinc.
nuts and seeds.
Dairy Milk and milk products such Protein, Vitamins A, B and B2.
products as yoghurt and cheese. Main source of calcium.
Candy, pastries, salad
Fats-sweets Supplies fats and sugar. Low in
dressing, coffee and
food nutrient value.
cooking oil.
 Diet
Balanced Diet
• A balanced diet is a diet which supplies all the essential
nutrients in the correct proportions.
• A balanced diet must contain enough:
 Protein to provide all the essential amino acids for growth and
repair for the body
 Energy-food to meet the energy requirements of the individual
 Minerals and vitamins to maintain good health
 Roughage or dietary fibre to stimulate peristalsis
 Water to aid the chemical reactions in the body
 Diet
• Basal metabolic rate and physical
activity determine energy needs.
• Basal metabolic rate varies with sex,
age and state of health of a person.
 Problems of World Food Supplies
Malnutrition
In the underdeveloped nations, malnutrition takes many forms:
• Starvation – Insufficient quantity of food to supply the daily
energy needs of an individual.
• Eating disorders – Genetic or environmental in origin, prevent
the digestion of food or the absorption of digested food.
• Overweight – due to excessive feeding. The excess food is
stored as fats.
• Obesity – the state in which a person weighs at least 20% more
than his ideal weight.
• Over-consumption of cholesterol and saturated fats.
• Constipation due to a lack of dietary fibre in the diet.
 Problems of World Food Supplies
Marasmus
• Marasmus is the wasting of the
body from general starvation.

• It develops when both energy food

and protein are insufficient.

• Most victims are children less than

1 year old who have been weaned
too early or have been given a
poor substitute for mother’s milk.
 Problems of World Food Supplies
Kwashiorkor
• Kwashiorkor causes over
half of infant deaths in
underdeveloped countries.
• Children who survive has
retarded brain development
and their bodies are dwarfed.
• Protein deficiency during
infancy is irreversible.
 Problems of World Food Supplies
Overeating Saturated Fats
• Increases the level of cholesterol in the blood.
• Cholesterol deposited on arterial walls harden and eventually
lead to heart disease.
• Formation of blood clots.
• This can strain the cardio-
vascular system leading to
heart attack and high blood
pressure.
 Problems of World Food Supplies
Overeating Saturated Fats
 Problems of World Food Supplies
Constipation
• Bowel movements are difficult and do not occur often enough.
• It is caused by a lack of exercise, emotional distress or misuse
of laxatives, and/or a diet low in dietary fibres.
• Due to constipation, abdominal pressure causes blood vessels
in the rectum to enlarge, producing haemorrhoids.
 Problems of World Food Supplies
Eating Disorders
Both anorexics and bulimics have a constant fear of being
fat and fear rejection
• Anorexia nervosa is characterised by constant dieting, rapid
weight loss and feeling too fat in spite of the weight loss.
• Bulimia is characterised by eating too much food through
vomiting or the use of laxatives; tend to gain weight easily and
live in constant fear of becoming obese. Bulimics often have
mouth and throat problems due to repeating vomiting.
 Problems of World Food Supplies
Causes of World Food Supply Shortage
The Population Explosion
• The world population today is 6 billion and is on the rise.
• Poverty, starvation and depletion of natural resources is on the increase
Famine
• Industrialised nations have agricultural surplus due to their advances in
technology and their high yielding crops.
• This results in unequal distribution of food.
Floods
• Heavy rainfalls during monsoon season, tidal waves and collapsed
dams, all cause widespread destruction of the agricultural land and the
crops themselves.
Drought
• Droughts bring about extreme crop damage and the destruction of farm
animals.
 Problems of World Food Supplies
Solutions to World Food Supply Shortage
• Green revolution – enhanced food yields can be obtained using new
strains of wheat, maize and rice.

• Culture fish, lobsters, prawns and crabs by farming the sea. Seaweed
and algae could be grown and harvested as well.

• Genetically modified food – Plants and animals have their genes altered
to improve quality. It is the potential solution to a growing world
population and dwindling food supplies.

• Improve the distribution of food from countries with surplus to

overpopulated third world countries. Surplus wheat from USA has been
distributed to famine stricken nations.
 Problems of World Food Supplies
Solutions to World Food Supply Shortage
• Developing farming technology has helped farmers increase output.

• Enriched food, such as bread have nutrients added to them to improve

the quality of food and help prevent malnutrition.

• Using better methods of pest control can reduce the quantity of food
lost during storage

• Increasing the land under cultivation can increase food production.

 The Digestive System

mouth salivary glands

teeth epiglottis
glottis
trachea

oesophagus

stomach
liver
cardiac sphincter
gallbladder
pancreas
duodenum pyloric sphincter

ileum descending colon

ascending colon
caecum large intestine

appendix rectum
anus
 The Digestive System
Structure Functions
Mouth
Teeth • Teeth grind and break down food, exposing a large
surface area for enzyme action
Tongue • Rolls food into bolus before swallowing
Salivary • Produce saliva
glands • Saliva dilutes and moistens food
• Mucus sticks food together
• Lubricates bolus for swallowing
Pharynx • Bolus is pushed into the pharynx voluntarily
• Involuntary action pushes bolus out of the
pharynx into the oesophagus during swallowing
 The Digestive System
Structure Functions
Oesophagus • Connects pharynx to stomach
• Waves of muscular contractiond during peristalsis
push food into the stomach
Cardiac • Controls the entry of food into the stomach from
sphincter the oesophagus
Stomach • Muscular wall churns and breaks up food
• Secretes gastric juice which mixes with the food to
form chyme
• Stores food for 2 to 6 hours
Pyloric • Controls the exit of chyme from the stomach into
sphincter the duodenum
 The Digestive System
Structure Functions
Small • Keeps chyme in motion by churning movements
intestine • Glands secrete mucus, water and digestive juices
Duodenum • Allows pancreatic juice to digest food in it
Jejunum • Absorption of digestion food occurs
Ileum • Absorption of digestion food occurs
Pancreas • Secretes pancreatic juice
• Enzymes of the pancreatic juice hasten hydrolysis
of food in the small intestine
Liver and • Liver produces dark green bile
gall bladder • Gall bladder stores bile
• Bile flows into the duodenum through the bile duct
• Bile emulsifies fats, providing a greater surface
area for the action of lipase
 The Digestive System
Structure Functions
Large
intestine
Caecum and • Vestigial organs with no particular function
appendix • Forms junction of small and large intestine
Colon • Secrete mucus
• Contains large number of bacteria which produce
vitamins, methane and hydrogen sulphide
• Absorbs water from chyme
• Peristalsis compact undigested food to form faeces
by muscular contraction of the wall of the rectum
• Mucus lubricates faeces and protects the walls
from digestive juices
Rectum • Stores faeces before defaecation
Anus • Regulate emptying of rectum
 The Digestive System
What is Digestion?

Digestion is the process by which the

body breaks down carbohydrates, fats
and proteins into simpler substances that
cells can absorb and use.

Mechanical digestion is the Chemical digestion is the process

process of chewing, mashing and of changing food into smaller
breaking food into smaller particles through the actions of
particles. This increases surface enzymes.
area for enzyme action.
 The Digestive System
Mechanical Digestion
The passage of food along the alimentary canal is accomplished
by rhythmic muscular contraction called peristalsis.

ring of muscles
contract

bolus

oesophagus

cardiac
sphincter

stomach

The bolus is being pushed towards the stomach. The

waves of muscular contraction are called peristalsis.
 The Digestive System
Chemical Digestion
• Large molecules such as starch has to be digested to form
smaller molecules which can be absorbed through the walls of
the villi.
• Enzymatic breakdown involves hydrolysis, which splits large
molecule by the addition of water.
• Enzymes which hasten the breakdown of carbohydrates, fats
and proteins into soluble and simple products can be classified
into three groups: amylases, proteases and lipases.

Amylases: act on Proteases: act on Lipases: act on fats

carbohydrates and proteins and convert and convert them
convert them into them into various into glycerol and
simple sugars amino acids fatty acids
 The Digestive System
Digestion in the Mouth

salivary gland

nose
nasal passage
palate
buccal cavity
salivary duct
tongue
pharynx
epiglottis

salivary glands glottis

amylase
• Saliva: starch  maltose.

• Saliva: bicarbonate ions (HCO3-) to buffer the saliva ⇒

maintain optimum pH 6.5 ~ 7.5 for starch digestion.
 The Digestive System
Digestion in the Stomach
• Gastric juices are secreted into the
stomach by gastric glands in the
walls of the stomach.
oesophagus
• Gastric juices contain water,
hydrochloric acid and enzymes.
cardiac
• The hydrochloric acid lowers the sphincter

pH of the stomach contents to a

stomach
pH of 2.0.
• Protein digestion begins with action of
pyloric
proteases – pepsin and rennin. sphincter

• Pepsin catalyses the hydrolysis of duodenum

protein to form polypeptides.
• Rennin catalyses the hydrolysis of milk
caseinogen to form milk curds (casein).
 The Digestive System
Digestion in the Small Intestine
Enzyme Action
Organ Gland Secretion Enzyme
Substrate Product
Duodenum Pancreas Pancreatic Trypsin Protein Polypeptides
(pH 8.5) juice Peptones

Amylase Starch Maltose

Lipase Emulsified Fatty acids and
fats glycerol

Intestinal Intestinal Maltase Maltose Glucose

glands juice Sucrase Sucrose Glucose and
(succus fructose
entericus)
Lactase Lactose Glucose and
Galactose

Peptidases Peptones and Amino acids

polypeptides
 The Digestive System
Bile
• Is a thick, yellow-green fluid produced by the liver.
• Helps to digest fats in the body.
• Is either secreted directly into the duodenum through the bile
duct or stored in the gall bladder.
• Contains sodium hydrogencarbonate, bile salts and bile
pigments.
 The Digestive System
Absorption of Digested Food
About 90% of the digested food is absorbed in the small intestine.

liver

gall
bladder
hepatic
portal vein

bile duct pancreas

pancreatic
duct

duodenum

The small intestine and accesssory digestive organs.

 The Digestive System
Absorption of Digested Food
Features of the intestine:
• It is the longest part of the alimentary canal, consisting of the
duodenum, jejunum, ileum.
• The internal surface of its wall is folded to increase the surface
area for absorption.
• Its surface is covered with villi to increase the absorptive surface.
• Each villus is covered with epithelial cells. The plasma membrane
of each cell has minute fingerlike projections called microvilli to
increase surface area.
• The villi move back and forth independently of each other. Motion
is fast after a meal and absorption proceeds faster.
• Absorption of nutrients across the membrane occurs by diffusion
and active transport.
 The Digestive System
Absorption of Digested Food
microvilli nutrients enter villus

villi

blood
capillaries
microvilli

lacteal

epithelial
lining of
the villus

lymph to the neck before

entering the heart lymphatic vessel
blood vessel
blood from heart

blood carries non-fatty

nutrients to the liver

Structure of the villus.

 The Digestive System
Absorption of Digested Food
to heart
hepatic vein
posterior
vena cava

liver
stomach
hepatic
portal vein

gastric vein
intestinal vein
small intestine

Blood is carried directly from the stomach and the intestine to the
liver via the hepatic portal vein. Hepatic veins then convey it to the
heart via the posterior vena cava.
 The Digestive System
Assimilation
• Is the uptake and use of digested food products by the
cells.

• oxidised  water + CO2 • a portion of absorbed fats

are stored in adipose tissues
• excess glucose  glycogen as fat droplets
• glycogen stored in liver cells • some are use in the
and muscle tissues synthesis of cell membrane
and the rest for energy
fat
droplet
nucleus large fat
globule
formed

Assimilation
• Is the uptake and use of digested food products by the
cells.
• for synthesis of proteins for
growth and development;
enzymes and hormones
• excess amino acids  ammonia +
glycogen
The Digestive System
• food residues that cannot
be digested leave the small
intestine  large intestine
• waste material 
compacted into faeces
• faeces propelled along
colon and rectum, then
expelled
 The Digestive System
Functions of the Liver
• Metabolism of glucose
• Metabolism of amino acids
• Production of bile
• Storage of iron
• Excretion of bile pigments
• Synthesis of plasma proteins
• Detoxification
• Storage of vitamins
• Reservoir for blood
• Source of heat energy
 Inquiry-based learning

• Divide class into 3 groups

• Each group to brainstorm questions related to one of the
following facts on chemical digestion in
– Mouth
– Stomach
– Small intestine
– Large intestin