DIFFERENT APPROACHES IN

ROUTERS FOR ROUTING METHODS.

SUBMITTED BY:
S.PRAVEEN KUMAR
 ROUTING

• Routing is the act of moving information across an

internetwork from a source to a destination.
• Routing is often contrasted with bridging.
• The primary difference between the two is that
bridging occurs at Layer 2 (the link layer) of the OSI
reference model.
• Routing involves two basic activities: determining
optimal routing paths and transporting information
groups (typically called packets) through an
internetwork.
• Although packet switching is relatively
straightforward, path determination can be very
complex.
• Destination/next hop associations tell a router that a
particular destination can be reached optimally by
sending the packet to a particular router representing
the “next hop” on the way to the final destination.
• When a router receives an incoming packet, it checks
the destination address and attempts to associate this
address with a next hop.
Beacon Vector Routing:
Scalable Point-to-Point
Routing in Wireless
Sensornets
• Most existing protocols only support basic many-to-
one or one-to-many routing primitives (e.g., Directed
diffusion, TAG, …)
• More point-to-point routing protocols have recently
been proposed
– Applications: Pursuer-evader game, spatial
queries, reactive tasking, multi-dimensional range
queries, data centric storage, …
 Design Goals

• Develop & implement a point-point routing protocol:

– That is simple – minimal complexity
– That makes minimal assumptions about radio
quality, presence of GPS, …
– Use TinyOS tree construction protocol
 Packet Forwarding

• Basic Algorithm:
1. Try Greedy Forwarding
- Largest Distance
2. Else try fallback
- Send towards
destination’s closest
beacon
3. Else Do Scoped Flood
- Flood the packet using
the distance from the
beacon as scope
 Greedy Forwarding

• Moving towards a beacon is better than moving away

from one.
• Object might be on the other side of a beacon
• Head towards beacons that are closer than us first
• If there is a tie, start moving away
Greedy Forwarding
 Network Maintenance

• Beacons periodically flood

the
network
• Use a Sequence Number
• Nodes periodically check
number of beacons
• If there are too many,
suppress yourself
• If there are not enough, elect
yourself
 D-STAR Routing

• Two Routing Methods

• Site Routing

• •Whereyou want to talk

• –Specific System/Gateway/Cityand Port
• User Routing

• •Whoyou want to talk

• –Specific User
 GATEWAY SITE ROUTING

•Connection over the Network

•One way connection
•Not a continuous connection
•Local hams on both ends can hear conversation
•Cannot join in until they program their radio
 VIRTUAL RING ROUTING

• Virtual Ring Routing (VRR), a new network routing

protocol that occupies a unique point in the design
space.
• VRR is inspired by overlay routing algorithms in
Distributed Hash Tables (DHTs) but it does not rely
on an underlying network routing protocol. It is
implemented directly on top of the link layer.
• VRR is also unique because it never floods the
network and uses only location independent
identifiers to route.
• Nodes are organized into a virtual ring ordered by
their identifiers and each node maintains a small
number of routing paths to its neighbors in the ring.
• The nodes along a path store the next hop towards
each path endpoint in a routing table.
• VRR uses random unsigned integers to identify
nodes, and organizes the nodes into a virtual ring in
order of increasing identifier (with wrapping around
zero).
• To maintain the integrity of the virtual ring with node
and link failures, each node maintains a virtual
neighbor set (or vset).
• Each node also maintains a physical neighbor set (or
pset) with the identifiers of nodes that it can
communicate with at the link layer.
• VRR provides not only point-to-point network
routing between two nodes but also a distributed hash
table (DHT).
 IP ROUTING

• Once upon a time, there were three separate

"physical" LANs, each with their own addressing
scheme, protocol, and format. And host "A" was very
sad,because it was unable to communicate with its
dearest love in the world, host"iii" which was on a
different LAN network
 ROUTERS

• The networks decided to connect with a

couple routers. Each router is like a translator
capable of participating in either of the two
networks to which it is connected.
 Introduce two routers. Each router is on two physical networks—
each router has an address and can send and receive packets on
both Networks. Need a consistent naming scheme to identify hosts
on the various networks.
 IP ADDRESS

• The first step in allowing all the of the different hosts

to communicate with each other is to introduce a
uniform naming scheme so that every host can have
a well defined name.
• Give every host an IP address which identifies the
network and host. Every host has a "physical" name,
such as "A" which is used by its LAN, as 3 well as
a global standard IP name such as "1.1".
• The left part of the IP address identifies the network
and the right part identifies the host on that network.
Give each host and router an IP address for each of its connections. The
IP addresses are consistent across all the networks. Each IP address
identifies the host and the network it is
 IP Datagram

• Now define the "IP Datagram" — a standard packet

format. The IP datagram is forwarded hop by hop
inside the packets of each LAN. At each hop, the
IP datagram is unpacked from the physical packet
that transported it.
IP datagrams use IP addresses. The datagram always keeps the IP address
of its ultimate destination. Hosts and routers forward the IP datagram one
hop at a time towards its destination. On each hop, the datagram is
encapuslated inside a physical network packet with a physical network
address. The datagram may need to be “fragmented” if it is too big to fit in
 Low Level

• The IP datagram and IP addressing and routing

schemes are umbrella standards that all the hosts and
routers use. At a small scale, hosts and routers use
their physical networks to send packets hop by hop.
IP is the overall, universal standard.
• Hosts and routers use the IP address for everything,
and mostly just the network part of the IP address.
The physical address of the
final destination is only computed on the very last
hop.
• The original IP datagram may be fragmented along the
way, but it always keeps the IP address of its final
destination. All routing decisions are in terms of IP
addresses.
• The datagram is defragmented only when it reaches the
final
destination (a design decision which helps keep the routers
simple).
• Each host and router is only concerned with what the "next
hop" is for a particular IP address. The overall design tries
to keep the hosts simple, leaving the complexity for the
routers. So for example, the top-left 1.1 host would keep a
"next hop" table which looked like..
Every host and router needs another (much smaller
and simpler) table which maps IP addresses to
physical address for things on its physical network

Routers have the same sort of "next hop" table, but

theirs are typically more complex since they know
about paths for farther away networks. The routing
tables are partly determined by the administrator for
the router, and partly the routers have their own
complex protocol they use dynamically to exchange
 TOPOLOGY ROUTING

• Structured peer-to-peer (p2p) overlay networks like

CAN, Chord, Pastry and provide a self-organizing
substrate for large-scale p2p applications.
• They can implement a scalable, fault-tolerant
distributed hash table (DHT), in which any item can
be located within a small number of routing hops
using a small per-node routing table.
• In Pastry, keys and nodeIds are 128 bits in length and can
be thought of as a sequence of digits in base 16.
• Tapestry is very similar to Pastry but differs in its
approach to mapping keys to nodes in the sparsely
populated id space, and in how it manages replication.
• In Tapestry, there is no leaf set and neighboring nodes in
the namespace are not aware of each other.
• Chord uses a circular 160 bit id space. Unlike Pastry,
Chord forwards messages only clockwise in the circular
id space.
• Instead of the prefix-based routing table in Pastry,
Chord nodes maintain a finger table, consisting of
nodeIds and IP addresses of up to 160 other live nodes
• proximity routing, the overlay is constructed without
regard for the physical network topology. But when
routing a message, there are potentially several nodes in
the routing table closer to the message’s key in the id
space.
• Proximity neighbor selection constructs a topology-aware
overlay. But instead of biasing the node Id assignment, the
idea is to choose routing table entries to refer to the
topologically closest node among all nodes with node Id
in the desired portion of the id space.
THANK YOU