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Non destructive Testing

Radiography
• X-rays or gamma rays are used as
probing media.
• These are electromagnetic rays capable of
penetrating through large thickness of
material
• Gamma rays obtained from naturally
radioactive material
• Radium or cobalt 6.
• Gamma radiation are more penetrating
than X-rays
• However, inferior sensitivity limits its
application
• No way that source may be regulated for
contrast or variable thickness.
• Usually requires much longer exposure
time than X- ray.
Production of X-rays
• When matter is bombarded with rapidly
moving stream of electron.
• As electron are suddenly stopped by
matter, a part of their K.E is converted to
energy of radiation X-rays
picture
• The essential condition for the production
of X-rays are:
• A filament (cathode), A target (Anode)
• Voltage difference between the Anode and
Cathode to regulate the velocity of
electron.
• A means to control the tube current to
control the numbers of electron striking the
target.
• A radiograph is a shadow/ picture of
material more or less transparent to
radiation.
• The X-rays darken the region of lower
density as compare of high density.
• Crack/hole appears as dark area while
inclusion appear as light area.
• Casting and weld product are inspected
• Measure the thickness of the material
Ultra sonic Inspection
• Use of sound wave to determine the
defects is an ancient method.
• Strike the material it radiate certain
audible notes
• Pitch and damping may be influenced by
the presence of internal flaws
• Useful for large defects.
Transducer
• A device which converts one form of energy to
another
• Ultrasonic waves are produced by piezoelectric
materials.
• These materials undergo a change in dimension
when subjected to an electric field
• This conversion of electrical energy to
mechanical energy is known as piezoelectric
effect
• When A.C current applied to piezoelectric
material
• During the first half the material expand
• When electric field is reversed it contracts
• By varying the frequency of A.C the
frequency of mechanical vibration (sound
wave) can be varied
• Quartz is widely used ultrasonic
transducer
Ultrasonic Inspection
• Ultrasonic inspection uses a beam of
high-frequency sound, in the range of 1 to
5 MHz,
• The sound wave is emitted as bursts or
pulses of energy vibrations and penetrates
in metals/ liquids.
• These vibrations travel into the area being
inspected with a speed of several
thousands feet /second
• They strike or are interrupted by a crack,
inclusion, or other discontinuity or by the
far side of the material.
• When a discontinuity is encountered,
some of the sound vibrations are reflected
• The larger the discontinuity (crack,
porosity, slag inclusion, etc.),
• The larger the amount of energy that will
be reflected to the transducer.
The transducer converts the returning vibrations
into electrical impulses.
These are amplified and appear on the screen
of a cathode-ray tube (CRT) as indications.
The initial pulse on the screen represents the
contact face or the testing surfaces
The flaw reflects some sound, and the rear
surface reflects more sound.
The presentation on the CRT displays the
location in the thickness and relative size
of the flaw.
• The size of the flaw determines the height
of the indication
• Calibration standard is required to
accurately measure defect size.
Methods of ultrasonic testing
• (1) the pulse-echo method;
• (2) the through-transmission method
• (3) the pitch-catch method.
• These three ultrasonic methods use
pulses of energy during testing operations.
The pulse-echo method
• Piezoelectric transducer mounted on or near
the surface of the test material
• Used to transmit and receive ultrasonic energy.
• The ultrasonic waves are reflected by the
opposite face of the material, by discontinuities,
layers, voids, or inclusions in the material,
The same transducer receive the reflected
energy and convert into an electrical signal
• .
• The electrical signal is then computer
processed for display on a video monitor
or TV screen.
• The display can show the relative
thickness of the material, depth into the
material where flaws are located
• In aerospace applications, the pulse-echo
method is used primarily for the detection
of flaws in metals,
The through-transmission method
Transmitter is used on one side of the
material while a detector is placed on the
opposite side.
• Scanning of the material using this method
will result in the location of defects, flaws,
and inclusions
• This method is used for nondestructive
testing of multi-layered and multi
component materials
The pitch-catch method
• The ultrasonic energy is transmitted at any
angle to the surface of the material
• Received as reflected energy returning at
the reflected angle,
Used primarily for cylindrical tubes and
other nonlinear parallel sided surfaces.
limitation of the ultrasonic
inspection method
• That a permanent record is difficult to
obtain during field inspection.
• A picture of the CRT and written reports of
the inspection results are sometimes
difficult to correlate.
• Rough surfaces make transducer contact
difficult and sometimes impossible.
• Calibration standards are usually required
to calibrate the instrument
Basic Principles of Eddy Current
Inspection
• - When alternating current is applied to the
conductor,
• A magnetic field develops in and around the
conductor.
• If another electrical conductor is brought into the
close proximity to this changing magnetic field,
• Eddy current will be induced in this second
conductor (Part to be inspected)
• The Eddy currents will produce a magnetic field
of their own.
• The detection unit will measure this new
magnetic field and convert the signal into
voltage.
• Properties like hardness, alloy
composition, chemical purity and heat
treatment influence the magnetic field
• This change can be measured and
calibrated.
• Eddy currents can be used for:
• Crack Detection (surface /sub surface),
Material Thickness, coating thickness
• Materials identification , Case Depth
determination , Heat Treatment Monitoring
.
Advantages of eddy current
inspection
Equipment is very portable , Inspection
gives immediate results.
• Minimum part preparation is required
• Test probe does not need to contact the
part
• Inspects complex shapes and sizes of
conductive materials
limitation of eddy current
inspection
Only conductive materials can be
inspected
• Surface must be accessible to the probe
• Skill and training required is more
extensive than other techniques
• Reference standards needed for setup
• Depth of penetration is limited

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