The Art of Correct Thinking

Simple Apprehension
Judgment Reasoning

Mental Operations Simple Apprehension Judgment Reasoning

Mental Product Concept Enunciation Argument

External Sign Term Proposition Syllogism

 Taken from the Latin word prehendere which means to sieze The first operation of the human mind

 The operation of the mind by which we mentally grasp a thing, making it present in & to our minds without affirming or denying anything about it

the operation by which we grasp the essences of the things

Error in Simple Apprehension Indistinctiveness

Arise either due to imperfections of our faculties

limited knowledge of objects which form our conceptions

Object of SA refers to what we grasp by simple apprehension Material Object Formal Object
the whole thing that is known by SA the thing as itself & w/ all its attributes the essences or quiddities of things what is known about M.O. through the use of some faculty SA grasp only what a thing is

Concept
The mental expression of an essence or quiddity product which SA produces within the mind as means of knowing the essences of things

pure image or sign; function as giving knowledge of whatever it signifies

Concept
the representation of an object by the intellect through which man understands or comprehends a thing An idea that starts with an object reality and apprehended by the senses

Kinds of Concept First Intention

A concept by which we understand what a thing is according to what it is in reality, independent of our thinking about it

e.g. Man is rational being

Second Intention
A concept by which we understand NOT only what a thing is in reality but also how it is in the mind e.g. Man can either be male or female

Kinds of Concept Concrete Concept

A concept which expresses a form and a subject Concrete- can be perceived by the senses

e.g. intelligent student, black dress

Abstract Concept
A concept which has form ONLY Form- refers to abstract quality, intangible, can not be perceived by the senses

e.g. intelligence, blackness, loyalty

Kinds of Concept Absolute Concept

Signifies the meaning of complete substance endowed with its independent reality

e.g. Man, God, Society

Connotative Concept
Signifies the object as an accident existing in a substance Present a form without a subject e.g. kind person, beautiful dress

Kinds of Concept Positive Concept

Signifies the existence or possession of something

e.g. Alive, rational

Negative Concept
Signifies the non-existence or nonpossession of something e.g. Death, irrational

 Refers to the process of Formation of ideas

also known as IDEOGENESIS

Preliminaries
Human Person a rational being who can cognize;

Sensitively
needs senses for operation senses know only the accidental qualities come in contact only with what appears on the surface know the things as it appear BUT can not know what it is

Intellectually
functions without bodily organ

knows the essence of reality knows NOT only the accidents but also its substance immaterial & can not come in direct contact with material realities & has to make use of sensory data

The object of Intellect is the abstract and universal essence of sensible realities

The Formation of ideas

the fundamental operation of the intellect requires that sense have to function first

SENSIBLE ORDER

External senses Proper Common Sensibles

Common sense

imagination cognitive sense sense memory

Thing

PHANTASM

expressed PERCEPT specie in S.O contain impressed individuating, specie in S.O concrete contain individuating, concrete qualities qualities individualized form in S.O

INTELLECTUAL ORDER
AGENT intellect POSSIBLE intellect Power to understand both receptive & reactive

Power to abstract
discards individuating characteristic s abstracted nature taken in by possible intellect

External Senses

gathers from objective realties proper & common sensibles common sense unified them into perceptual wholes

Percept the form of the object as it exist in the

senses called impressed specie because it is the result of the operation wherein qualities of the object are taken in by external senses & IMPRESSED upon the mind in the presence of objective reality

Phantasm

the image which is an EXPRESSED specie in sensible order called expressed because it is a manifestation of the representative power of the internal senses

to be understood by the intellectual its individualized form MUST be converted into something intelligible

The Human Intellect

Agent Intellect Power to abstract Possible Intellect Power to understand
Receives impressed specie, grasps and understand it
Expresses its understanding by producing an Idea or concept A formal sign which represent the being or essence of the object known

What is truth?
Adaequatio intellectus et rei (St. Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae I q. 21a. 2c)

the conformity between the intellect and reality

Term
the external representation of a concept and the ultimate structural element of a proposition may be oral or written or printed in logic it is always a sign of a concept or an idea

Classification of Terms
Univocal terms exhibit similarity in meaning If

or signification when used in at least two occasions

e.g. Francis Bacon is a philosopher. Frederich Nietzsche is a philosopher.

e.g. The Pope is a man. Mao Tse Tung is a man.

Classification of Terms
Equivocal terms If exhibit difference in meaning or signification whenever they are used in at least two occasions
e.g. Her boyfriend gave her a ring. The bells ring.

e.g. You should see her bend over the flower at the bend of the road.

Classification of Terms
Equivocal terms Can be known by considering the three processes

Spelling alone Same spelling, different pronunciation, different meaning

e.g. resume- resume; lead - lead

Classification of Terms
Equivocal terms Sound alone Same pronunciation, different spelling, different meaning
e.g. made-maid; seek-sick; sale-sail

Both sound & spelling Similar sound & spelling but different meaning
e.g. match-match; right-right; light-light

Classification of Terms
Analogous terms express partly the same & partly different meanings when used in at least two occasions Proportionality & attribution should be noted
e.g. Orange (a fruit) & orange (color) land (ground) & land (to set down) health ---with primary meaning health----with secondary meaning

Term
Comprehension of a Term the sum total of all the notes ( the elements that comprise the significance of an idea) which constitute the meaning of a concept Extension of a Term the sum total of the particulars to which the comprehension of a concept can be applied

JUDGMENT AND PROPOSITION

Mental Operations

Mental Product

External Sign

Judgment

Enunciation

Proposition

What is Judgment and Proposition?

 The second operation of the human mind a mental process of transferring from the ideal order to the real order

 the act whereby the intellect compares two ideas noting their agreement or disagreement and either combines or separates them

 defines as the act by which the mind affirms or denies something about something else
that which is denied or affirmed by the other that to which it is said to belong or not to belong known as Attribute known as subject

 the act by which the mind affirms or denies an attribute of a subject

 needs simple apprehension since without ideas to be compared NO judgment can take place express in sentence known as proposition, the product of judgment

 the external sign of judgment

Defines as a statement which affirms or denies something about a certain reality or object. Often formulated in declarative form
SUBJECT

A triangle is a three-sided figure

ATTRIBUTE

 The third operation of the human mind a mental process wherein the intellect arrives at new judgment or at a new truth by using judgment previously known

 in this act or mental process, the mind or the intellect advances from one thing understood to another- ( engaged in mental discussion)

Induction
the reasoning from the particular to universal; from specific instances to the formulation of general principles; from cause to effects a.k.a. A POSTERIORI reasoning methods of reasoning employed by physical sciences; chemistry, biology, medicine

Deduction
the reasoning from the universal to
the particular; from laws to their operations principles; from causes to effects a.k.a A PRIORI reasoning

method used in mathematical & philosophical sciences

The Basic Elements of Categorical Proposition

In Logic there are many kinds of propositions :

A. categorical or attributed B. hypothetical C. existential or non-existential D. simple or compound

Here we will treat first the categorical proposition
Introduction.

Categorical or attributive proposition has basic elements: a. the subject

b. the predicate c. the copula

Ex. The story he told you is apocryphal.
the subject the copula the predicate

About the SUBJECT... it is the one spoken of the one about whom or which something is denied or affirmed
About the PREDICATE it is what is affirmed or denied of the subject About the COPULA it links the subject with the predicate it is the verb to be: is, am, are (affirmative) is, am, are not (negative)

For purposes of Logic

tenses are irrelevant the copula is should be taken in a tenseless sense its past and future forms are usually considered part of the predicate ex. Magellan was the discoverer of the Phils. In logic Magellan is the Spaniard who discovered Phils. Red China will be the country to watch. In Logic Red China is the country we shall have to watch.

It is also important to note that in Logic:

number is irrelevant like A horse is an animal it is equivalent to

all horses are animals

no distinction is made between

horse and horses and between

animal and animals

The quality of proposition is determined by the quality of the copula

Affirmative
whenever the predicate term accepts something of the subject term
e.g. All roses are flowers.

Negative
whenever the predicate term negates or denies something of the subject term
e.g. A squash is not an eggplant.

 THE quantity of the proposition is equivalent to the

quantity of its subject it is SINGULAR if the subject stands for a single definite individual or group it is PARTICULAR if the subject designates an indefinite part of its total extension it is UNIVERSAL if the subject can apply to every portion signified by the term
Examples: Singular : Shakespeare is Englands greatest dramatist. Particular: Some prima ballerinas are not Margot Fonteyn Universal: Love is a many-splendored things.

a. Singular
for a single definite individual or group.
- stands

1. Proper Noun
e.g. Karl, Vladimher, DLSHSI etc

2. Nouns modified by adjectives in superlative degree

e.g. first, worst, most charming etc.

3. Demonstratives
e.g. this and that

4. Collective Nouns
e.g. a] flock, orchestra, audience b] A hundered balloons filled the ceiling c] A thousand people jampacked the gym.

5. The article The

e.g. the gentleman in barong tagalog. the restaurant across the street.

6. Personal Pronouns
I, you, they, we, he, she, my etc.

b. Particular
- a term is particular when it stands for an indefinite part of an absolute extension.

1. Indefinite pronouns and adjectives like Some, several, many, few, most 2. Use of Numbers like Seven, nine, one, four 3. Articles A and An 4. General propositions like Filipinos are hospitable.

c. Universal
- a term is universal

when it stands for every subject signified.

1. Universal expressions like All, ever, each, whatever, whoever, no,

whichever, without, exception, everything.

2. Universal ideas like Men are mortal. 3. the articles the, a and an if the idea is universal
note: article the is singular if it refers to definite individual or group it is universal if it refers to universal idea. article a and an are particular if they connote an indefinite part of absolute extension; it is universal if they connote universal ideas

Proposition [symbol] A E I O

Quantity Universal or Singular Universal or Singular Particular Particular

Quality Affirmative Negative Affirmative Negative

 Is entirely different from the quantity of the proposition to determine the quantity of the predicate, the point of reference will be the quality of the proposition, whether affirmative or negative

 Universal
if the quality of the proposition is negative, the quantity of the predicate is automatically universal

Most ideas are not expressed

Particular
if the quality of the proposition is affirmative, the quantity of the predicate is automatically particular This modern technology is the solution to our problem

Symbols and the Categorical Statement

Since the time of Aristotle there have been attempts to make logic a science of symbols to achieve shortcuts to correct reasoning. Among these are symbols for the four categorical statements namely: A stands for universal or singular and affirmative statements E - stands for universal or singular and negative statements I stands for particular and affirmative statements 0 stands for particular and negative statements

universal / singular

A
affirmative

E
negative

particular

1. all roses are flowers 2. every cloud has its silver lining 3. every man is being-for-death 4. wherever you go, I go 5. whoever wins will be awarded a trip to Hongkong 6. whatever will be, will be 7. all of us in this room are Filipinos 8. everything is in a flux

1. no atheist is a believer of God 2. no bird has four legs 3. love of country is not a commodity for sale 4. none of the invited top brass has showed up 5. I never said he was a crook 6. he loves me not 7. a squash is not an elephant 8. no pill box is a safe weapon

MODEL STATEMENTS

1. some philosophers are essentialist 2. several philosophers are existentialists 3. most cultures are deeply religious 4. Filipinos are music lovers 5. quite a few tourists are knowledgeable of our scenic spots

1. some dogs are not black 2. not all women are fickle 3. a few Filipinos are not literate 4. Many Americans are not rich 5. Not all that shines are gold 6. most Russians are not communist party members 7. some things are not edible

MODEL STATEMENTS

Identify what symbols are the ff prop. and why:

o No Filipinos is unmindful for his beloved dead. o Dozens of flowers are gifts of remembrance. o Many faith healers are fake. o Every man is a homo viator [traveller]. o No man is an island. o All men are beings for death. o Our guardian angels are powerful protectors. o Not all spirits are good

 All government officials are natural-born citizens

No involuntary act is a conscious act Several movie directors are passionate Not all commentators are objective
Subject term Predicate term Quantity of proposition Quality of the Prop.

Symbol

Quantity of the predicate Particular

Government officials Involuntary act Movie directors Commentators

Naturalborn citizens Conscious act Passionate Objective

Universal

Affirmative

Universal Particular Particular

Negative Affirmative Negative

E I O

Universal Particular Universal

Subject term

Predicate term

Quantity of proposition

Quality of the Prop.

Symbol

Quantity of the predicate

1.
2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

1.
2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

9.

10.

The Logical Form

Most of the propositions taken up follow a consistent pattern i.e. S is P (SUBJECT-COPULA-PREDICATE). Those already adept in logic can easily translate, mentally, any proposition into a standard-form categorical statement. But neophytes need more time to think and would so better if they write down the propositions in their logical form.

A Proposition:
1. Avoid using the word one in your predicate for it is vague and indefinite. ex. Mario is the one who sells newspaper Mario is a newsboy 2. Avoid using redundant terms. ex. Shakespeare is the writer who wrote Macbeth Shakespeare is the author of Macbeth 3. whatever, whoever and only, be replaced by ALL ex. a. Whatever is material will decay all things which are material are [substances] which will decay b. whoever is hungry will be fed all persons who are hungry are to be fed c. only family members will be admitted all those who will be admitted are family members

E Proposition:
1. None, nothing, nowhere and other negative word are interchangeable by NO and should follow the S is/are P pattern. ex. a. No crocodiles fly No crocodiles are flyers b. none of the guests came no guests are [people] who came c. nothing that is a plant is an animal no plants are animals d. nowhere that he goes is decent no place that he goes to is decent e. there are no men with tails no men are with tails *sometimes linguistic distortion are unavoidable in reducing propositions to their logical form.

I Proposition:
1. the quantifier some is interpreted as at least one possibly more, hence the copula can be is or are. ex. some broken hearts can be mended some broken hearts are mendable 2. many, several, a few, most and other indefinite quantifiers are interchangeable by some. ex. A dog barked furiously last night some dog is an animal who barked furiously last night - there are inefficient teachers some teachers are inefficient

- a few students go to concerts

some students are concert goers

O Proposition:
1. several student radicals have not traveled to Red China several student radicals are not travelers to Red China 2. All glib talkers are not intelligent some glib talkers are not intelligent

3. we saw the zarzuela and did not enjoy it

some of us are not happy with what we watched, the zarzuela.

I and O Proposition:
1. a few students go to concerts some students are concert goers [ I ]; the others are not concert goers [ O ] 2. all except, all but, as well as quasi-numerical quantifiers such as almost all, not quite all, and almost everyone are quite vague. ex. Almost everyone is a card-carrying member may mean, some are card carrying members; it can also mean, some are not card-carrying members all but her friends are invited; may also mean, no enemies of her are invited. 3. hence, for claritys sake, we shall consider such statements as referring to two joint categorical proposition.

Schematic Formulations [Venn Diagram]

A Every S is P All S are P E No S is P S is not P

particular and affirmative

universal or singular and affirmative

universal or singular and negative

I Some S is P
Some S are P 0 Some S is not P Some S are not P

particular and negative

Some Reminders:
1. The E may have either is or are depending on the subject. 2. The some is indefinite and, thus, may take on the is and are copulas again depending on the subject. 3. In reducing proposition to logical form, keep in mind the ff: 3.1 keep the original subject 3.2 do not use the progressive tense for your predicate 3.3 avoid using the word one 3.4 avoid redundancies 3.5 be simple and direct in your answers