Def|n|t|on of Log|c Def|n|t|on of Log|c

1he Lerm loglc came from Lhe Creek word 1he Lerm loglc came from Lhe Creek word
whlch ls someLlmes LranslaLed as whlch ls someLlmes LranslaLed as
senLence dlscourse reason rule and senLence dlscourse reason rule and
raLlo raLlo
1he sclence of 8easonlng 1he sclence of 8easonlng
A sLudy of Lhe prlnclples and meLhods used Lo A sLudy of Lhe prlnclples and meLhods used Lo
dlsLlngulsh good from bad reasonlng dlsLlngulsh good from bad reasonlng
1he sLudy of Lhe prlnclples of correcL 1he sLudy of Lhe prlnclples of correcL
reasonlng reasonlng
entences entences
enLences are Lhe arranged sLrlngs of words enLences are Lhe arranged sLrlngs of words
enLence are elLher meanlngful or meanlngless enLence are elLher meanlngful or meanlngless
a) A caL ls slLLlng on Lhe maL ( meanlngful) a) A caL ls slLLlng on Lhe maL ( meanlngful)
b) A Lac ls slLLlng on Lhe maL ( meanlngless) b) A Lac ls slLLlng on Lhe maL ( meanlngless)
enLences are elLher correcL or lncorrecL lf Lhey enLences are elLher correcL or lncorrecL lf Lhey
do noL fulflll Lhe synLacLlcal requlremenLs of any do noL fulflll Lhe synLacLlcal requlremenLs of any
language language
9opos|t|on 9opos|t|on
ome senLences can be verlfled by sense ome senLences can be verlfled by sense
experlence for example experlence for example
a) lL ls ralnlng ouLslde a) lL ls ralnlng ouLslde
b) 1oday ls unday b) 1oday ls unday
c) Zardarl ls Lhe resldenL of aklsLan c) Zardarl ls Lhe resldenL of aklsLan
d) 2+24 d) 2+24
e) Puman belngs are morLal e) Puman belngs are morLal
9em|se ] 9em|ses 9em|se ] 9em|ses
A proposlLlon or proposlLlons anLecedenLly A proposlLlon or proposlLlons anLecedenLly
supposed or proved as a basls of argumenL or supposed or proved as a basls of argumenL or
lnference lnference
A senLence or senLences use Lo serve as Lhe base A senLence or senLences use Lo serve as Lhe base
or ground Lo flnd ouL Lhe concluslon or ground Lo flnd ouL Lhe concluslon
All men are morLal (remlse) All men are morLal (remlse)
All ls a man All ls a man (remlse) (remlse)
1herefore All ls morLal ( Concluslon) 1herefore All ls morLal ( Concluslon)
ome 9em|se Ind|catos ome 9em|se Ind|catos
lnce lnce
8ecause 8ecause
AlLhough AlLhough
And And
8uL 8uL
lor lor
Conc|us|on Conc|us|on
A senLence drawn by premlse or premlses A senLence drawn by premlse or premlses
All men are morLal (remlse) All men are morLal (remlse)
All ls a man All ls a man (remlse) (remlse)
All ls morLal All ls morLal (Concluslon) (Concluslon)
ome Conc|us|on Ind|catos ome Conc|us|on Ind|catos
1herefore 1herefore
Whence Whence
Pence Pence
o o
ConsequenLly ConsequenLly
As a resulL As a resulL
lL can be concluded lL can be concluded
An argumenL ls a comblnaLlon of An argumenL ls a comblnaLlon of
premlse / premlses and concluslon premlse / premlses and concluslon
22
22+ +
4 4
no mango ls sweeL no mango ls sweeL
1herefore no sweeL ls mango 1herefore no sweeL ls mango
1he 1he use use of loglcal Lhlnklng ln order Lo flnd of loglcal Lhlnklng ln order Lo flnd
resulLs or draw concluslons resulLs or draw concluslons
1he acL or process of drawlng concluslons 1he acL or process of drawlng concluslons
from from facLs evldence eLc facLs evldence eLc
1he process of drawlng concluslon from 1he process of drawlng concluslon from
daLa for example 2 + 2 4 daLa for example 2 + 2 4
Applylng Lhe faculLy of reason Lo analyze Applylng Lhe faculLy of reason Lo analyze
daLa ln order Lo geL concluslon daLa ln order Lo geL concluslon
Infeence Infeence
1he acL of passlng from one proposlLlon 1he acL of passlng from one proposlLlon
sLaLemenL or [udgmenL consldered as Lrue Lo sLaLemenL or [udgmenL consldered as Lrue Lo
anoLher whose LruLh ls belleved Lo follow anoLher whose LruLh ls belleved Lo follow
from LhaL of Lhe former from LhaL of Lhe former
lnference ls Lhe process by whlch we move lnference ls Lhe process by whlch we move
Loward concluslon from premlses by applylng Loward concluslon from premlses by applylng
reason reason
A process of reasonlng A process of reasonlng
k|nds of keason|ng k|nds of keason|ng
1here are Lwo klnds of reasonlng 1here are Lwo klnds of reasonlng
educLlve 8easonlng educLlve 8easonlng
lnducLlve 8easonlng lnducLlve 8easonlng
Deduct|ve Agument Deduct|ve Agument
When concluslon ls compleLely supporLed by When concluslon ls compleLely supporLed by
lLs premlses lL wlll be a deducLlve argumenL lLs premlses lL wlll be a deducLlve argumenL
educLlve reasonlng or educLlve reasonlng or JeJoctl JeJoctl sLarLs sLarLs
wlLh a general case and deduces speclflc wlLh a general case and deduces speclflc
lnsLances lnsLances
A deducLlve argumenL ls A deducLlve argumenL ls valld valld lf Lhe lf Lhe
concluslon does follow necessarlly from Lhe concluslon does follow necessarlly from Lhe
premlses le lf Lhe concluslon musL be Lrue premlses le lf Lhe concluslon musL be Lrue
provlded LhaL Lhe premlses are Lrue oLherwlse provlded LhaL Lhe premlses are Lrue oLherwlse
lL wlll be lnvalld lL wlll be lnvalld

Lxamp|e of a Va||d Deduct|ve Agument Lxamp|e of a Va||d Deduct|ve Agument
All men are morLal (remlse) All men are morLal (remlse) 1rue 1rue
All ls a man All ls a man (remlse) 1rue (remlse) 1rue
All ls morLal All ls morLal (Concluslon) 1rue (Concluslon) 1rue
Lxamp|e of an Inva||d Deduct|ve Agument Lxamp|e of an Inva||d Deduct|ve Agument
All men are morLal All men are morLal (remlse) (remlse) 1rue 1rue
All ls a man All ls a man (remlse) (remlse) 1rue 1rue
All ls noL morLal All ls noL morLal (Concluslon) (Concluslon) lalse lalse
Induct|ve keason|ng Induct|ve keason|ng
lnducLlve reasonlng or lnducLlon ls reasonlng lnducLlve reasonlng or lnducLlon ls reasonlng
from a speclflc case or cases and derlvlng a from a speclflc case or cases and derlvlng a
general rule lL draws lnferences from general rule lL draws lnferences from
observaLlons ln order Lo make generallzaLlons observaLlons ln order Lo make generallzaLlons
An lnducLlve ArgumenL ls more or less An lnducLlve ArgumenL ls more or less
probable lL's LruLh value always remalns probable lL's LruLh value always remalns
uncerLaln uncerLaln
Infeence can be done |n fou stages Infeence can be done |n fou stages
1 1 Obetvotl Obetvotl collecL facLs wlLhouL blas collecL facLs wlLhouL blas
Aol Aol classlfy Lhe facLs ldenLlfylng classlfy Lhe facLs ldenLlfylng
paLLerns of regularlLy paLLerns of regularlLy
letece letece lrom Lhe paLLerns lnfer lrom Lhe paLLerns lnfer
generallzaLlons abouL Lhe relaLlons generallzaLlons abouL Lhe relaLlons
beLween Lhe facLs beLween Lhe facLs
4 4 cltmotl cltmotl 1esLlng Lhe lnference 1esLlng Lhe lnference
Lhrough furLher observaLlon Lhrough furLher observaLlon
Induct|ve aguments can |nc|ude Induct|ve aguments can |nc|ude
1 1 lott lott t t wbe wbe where Lhe whole ls assumed where Lhe whole ls assumed
Lo be llke lndlvldual parLs (only blgger) Lo be llke lndlvldual parLs (only blgger)
xttopotl xttopotl where areas beyond Lhe area where areas beyond Lhe area
of sLudy are assumed Lo be llke Lhe sLudled of sLudy are assumed Lo be llke Lhe sLudled
area area
lteJlctl lteJlctl where Lhe fuLure ls assumed Lo where Lhe fuLure ls assumed Lo
be llke Lhe pasL be llke Lhe pasL
Lxamp|e of an |nduct|ve Agument Lxamp|e of an |nduct|ve Agument
All ls a man and All ls morLal All ls a man and All ls morLal
alf ls a man and alf ls morLal alf ls a man and alf ls morLal
lrfan ls a man and lrfan ls morLal lrfan ls a man and lrfan ls morLal
aad ls a man and aad ls morLal aad ls a man and aad ls morLal
Caslm ls a man and Caslm ls morLal Caslm ls a man and Caslm ls morLal
All men are morLal All men are morLal
@uth Va||d|ty oundness @uth Va||d|ty oundness
@uth @uth a properLy of sLaLemenLs a properLy of sLaLemenLs le le LhaL Lhey LhaL Lhey
are Lhe case are Lhe case
Va||d|ty Va||d|ty a properLy of argumenLs a properLy of argumenLs le le LhaL Lhey LhaL Lhey
have a good sLrucLure (1he premlses and have a good sLrucLure (1he premlses and
concluslon are so relaLed LhaL lL ls absoluLely concluslon are so relaLed LhaL lL ls absoluLely
lmposslble for Lhe premlses Lo be Lrue unless Lhe lmposslble for Lhe premlses Lo be Lrue unless Lhe
concluslon ls Lrue also) concluslon ls Lrue also)
oundness oundness a properLy of boLh argumenLs and a properLy of boLh argumenLs and
Lhe sLaLemenLs ln Lhem Lhe sLaLemenLs ln Lhem le le Lhe argumenL ls Lhe argumenL ls
valld and all Lhe sLaLemenL are Lrue valld and all Lhe sLaLemenL are Lrue
@ems C|asses o Catego|es @ems C|asses o Catego|es
A A tem tem can be Lhe name of a class or a can be Lhe name of a class or a
group for example group for example cot cot ls a name of a group ls a name of a group
of anlmals havlng some common feaLures of anlmals havlng some common feaLures
A A c|ass]categoy c|ass]categoy ls a group of Lhlngs people ls a group of Lhlngs people
or anlmals havlng common feaLures for or anlmals havlng common feaLures for
example example
Class of CaLs Class of CaLs
Class of ogs Class of ogs
Class of ollLlclans Class of ollLlclans
Catego|ca| 9opos|t|on Catego|ca| 9opos|t|on
A caLegorlcal proposlLlon [olns LogeLher A caLegorlcal proposlLlon [olns LogeLher
exacLly Lwo caLegorlcal Lerms and asserLs LhaL exacLly Lwo caLegorlcal Lerms and asserLs LhaL
some relaLlonshlp holds beLween Lhe classes some relaLlonshlp holds beLween Lhe classes
Lhey deslgnaLe Lhey deslgnaLe
CaLs CaLs are are mammals mammals
ln Lhe above sLaLemenL caLs are represenLlng ln Lhe above sLaLemenL caLs are represenLlng
a class and mammals ls also a name of a class a class and mammals ls also a name of a class
Catego|ca| 9opos|t|ons Catego|ca| 9opos|t|ons
1here are four Lypes of caLegorlcal 1here are four Lypes of caLegorlcal
proposlLlons proposlLlons
A All man are morLal A All man are morLal
L no men are morLal L no men are morLal
l ome man are morLal l ome man are morLal
C ome man are noL morLal C ome man are noL morLal
;ua||ty ;uant|ty ;ua||ty ;uant|ty
CuallLy CuallLy
A roposlLlon can be afflrmlng someLhlng or A roposlLlon can be afflrmlng someLhlng or
denylng someLhlng lf lL afflrms Lhen lL would be denylng someLhlng lf lL afflrms Lhen lL would be
an AfflrmaLlve roposlLlon lf lL denles Lhen lL an AfflrmaLlve roposlLlon lf lL denles Lhen lL
would be a negaLlve roposlLlon would be a negaLlve roposlLlon
All sLudenLs are presenL (AfflrmaLlve) All sLudenLs are presenL (AfflrmaLlve)
ome sLudenLs are noL presenL (negaLlve ) ome sLudenLs are noL presenL (negaLlve )
;ua||ty ;uant|ty ;ua||ty ;uant|ty
CuanLlLy CuanLlLy
A roposlLlon can be conslsLlng of all A roposlLlon can be conslsLlng of all
members of any Class (unlversal) or some members of any Class (unlversal) or some
members of LhaL class (parLlcular) members of LhaL class (parLlcular)
All sLudenLs are presenL (unlversal) All sLudenLs are presenL (unlversal)
ome sLudenLs are presenL (parLlcular) ome sLudenLs are presenL (parLlcular)
D|st|but|on D|st|but|on
When a Lerm refers Lo all of lLs' members When a Lerm refers Lo all of lLs' members
(deslgnaLed by LhaL Lerm) lL wlll be a (deslgnaLed by LhaL Lerm) lL wlll be a
dlsLrlbuLed Lerm dlsLrlbuLed Lerm
A" dlsLrlbuLes lL sub[ecL only because lL A" dlsLrlbuLes lL sub[ecL only because lL
represenLs all members of lLs class represenLs all members of lLs class
A A|| toys ae boken A A|| toys ae boken
A A|| boys ae |nte|||gent A A|| boys ae |nte|||gent
D|st|but|on D|st|but|on
L" dlsLrlbuLes lLs' sub[ecL and lLs' predlcaLe L" dlsLrlbuLes lLs' sub[ecL and lLs' predlcaLe
boLh because Lhey represenL all members of boLh because Lhey represenL all members of
Lhelr classes respecLlvely Lhelr classes respecLlvely
L no sLudenL ls absenL L no sLudenL ls absenL
L no boy ls lnLelllgenL L no boy ls lnLelllgenL
D|st|but|on D|st|but|on
l" dlsLrlbuLes none of lLs' sub[ecL or lLs' l" dlsLrlbuLes none of lLs' sub[ecL or lLs'
predlcaLe Lerm 8oLh Lerms are showlng some predlcaLe Lerm 8oLh Lerms are showlng some
members of Lhelr class members of Lhelr class
l ome frulLs are sweeL l ome frulLs are sweeL
l ome pollLlclans are loyal l ome pollLlclans are loyal
D|st|but|on D|st|but|on
C" does noL dlsLrlbuLe lLs' sub[ecL Lerm lL C" does noL dlsLrlbuLe lLs' sub[ecL Lerm lL
dlsLrlbuLes lLs' predlcaLe only dlsLrlbuLes lLs' predlcaLe only
C ome frulLs are noL sweeL C ome frulLs are noL sweeL
C ome pollLlclans are noL loyal C ome pollLlclans are noL loyal
CA@LGCkICAL 9kC9CI@ICN CA@LGCkICAL 9kC9CI@ICN
A 8IkD LL VILW A 8IkD LL VILW
Code Code Quality Quality Quantity Quantity Subject Subject
Distribution Distribution
Predicate Predicate
Distribution Distribution
A A Affirmative Affirmative Universal Universal Yes Yes No No
EE Negative Negative Universal Universal Yes Yes Yes Yes
I I Affirmative Affirmative
Particular Particular
No No No No
OO Negative Negative Particular Particular No No Yes Yes
@he @ad|t|ona| uae of Cppos|t|on @he @ad|t|ona| uae of Cppos|t|on
1he square of opposlLlon ls a charL LhaL was 1he square of opposlLlon ls a charL LhaL was
lnLroduced wlLhln classlcal (caLegorlcal) loglc lnLroduced wlLhln classlcal (caLegorlcal) loglc
Lo represenL Lhe loglcal relaLlonshlps holdlng Lo represenL Lhe loglcal relaLlonshlps holdlng
beLween cerLaln proposlLlons ln vlrLue of Lhelr beLween cerLaln proposlLlons ln vlrLue of Lhelr
form 1he square LradlLlonally concelved form 1he square LradlLlonally concelved
looks llke Lhls looks llke Lhls
1he relaLlonshlp beLween A and L proposlLlon ls 1he relaLlonshlp beLween A and L proposlLlon ls
ConLrary ConLrary @hey ca @hey cannoL boLh be Lrue aL Lhe same Llme nnoL boLh be Lrue aL Lhe same Llme
o lf you know LhaL one ls Lrue Lhen you also know o lf you know LhaL one ls Lrue Lhen you also know
LhaL Lhe oLher ls false (1hey can however boLh be LhaL Lhe oLher ls false (1hey can however boLh be
false slmulLaneously) false slmulLaneously)
A All roses are red 1 / l A All roses are red 1 / l
L no rose ls red l / 1 L no rose ls red l / 1
ub ub Conta|es Conta|es
ub ub ConLrarles are exacLly Lhe opposlLe of ConLrarles are exacLly Lhe opposlLe of
conLrarles lL ls always Lhe case LhaL aL leasL conLrarles lL ls always Lhe case LhaL aL leasL
one ls Lrue lf you know LhaL one ls false Lhen one ls Lrue lf you know LhaL one ls false Lhen
you auLomaLlcally know LhaL Lhe oLher ls Lrue you auLomaLlcally know LhaL Lhe oLher ls Lrue
(1hey can however boLh be Lrue (1hey can however boLh be Lrue
slmulLaneously) slmulLaneously)
l ome roses are red l ome roses are red
C ome roses are noL red C ome roses are noL red
ub ub a|tenat|on a|tenat|on
% WlLh ub % WlLh ub alLernaLlon you should remember alLernaLlon you should remember
LhaL you can go down wlLh Lrue (le lf A ls LhaL you can go down wlLh Lrue (le lf A ls
Lrue Lhen l ls Lrue as well) and up wlLh false Lrue Lhen l ls Lrue as well) and up wlLh false
(le lf l ls false Lhen A ls false as well) (le lf l ls false Lhen A ls false as well) t t
not not vice verso vice verso
Contad|cto|es Contad|cto|es
1he ConLradlcLorles (AC) (Ll) cannoL 1he ConLradlcLorles (AC) (Ll) cannoL
boLh be Lrue aL Lhe same Llme and ln Lhe same boLh be Lrue aL Lhe same Llme and ln Lhe same
sense sense Cne Lrue and one false buL boLh Cne Lrue and one false buL boLh
cannoL be Lrue aL Lhe same Llme cannoL be Lrue aL Lhe same Llme
@ypes of Infeence @ypes of Infeence
Immed|ate |nfeence Immed|ate |nfeence
We draw concluslon from a slngle premlse We draw concluslon from a slngle premlse
,ed|ate Infeence ,ed|ate Infeence
remlses can be Lwo (mlnlmum) or remlses can be Lwo (mlnlmum) or
more Lhan Lwo more Lhan Lwo
Chart for Truth Values of the Propositions
A=Irae =Ia|se I= Irae 0= Ia|se
=Irae A=Ia|se I=Ia|se 0=Irae
I= Irae = Ia|se A= aadeterm|aed 0=aadeterm|aed
0=Irae A= Ia|se I= aadeterm|aed =aadeterm|aed
A= Ia|se 0= Irae I=aadeterm|aed = aadeterm|aed
=Ia|se I= Irae A=aadeterm|aed 0=aadeterm|aed
I=Ia|se =Irae A=Ia|se 0=Ia|se
0=Ia|se A=Irae = Ia|se I= Irae
Chart for Truth Values of the Propositions
y||og|sm y||og|sm
A klnd of deducLlve argumenL ln whlch we A klnd of deducLlve argumenL ln whlch we
have exacLly Lwo premlses and one have exacLly Lwo premlses and one
concluslon Lach argumenL has Lhree Lerms concluslon Lach argumenL has Lhree Lerms
and each Lerm occurs Lwlce ln Lhe argumenL and each Lerm occurs Lwlce ln Lhe argumenL
All All sweet frits sweet frits are are de/icios de/icios
All All monqoes monqoes are are sweet frits sweet frits
All All monqoes monqoes are are de/icios de/icios
Conclusion
A: All mangoes are delicious.
( Subject term ( Predicate Term or
or Minor Term ) Major Term
A All A All sweet frits sweet frits are are de/icios de/icios
ub[ecL Lerm Mlddle 1erm ub[ecL Lerm Mlddle 1erm
A A All All monqoes monqoes are are sweet frits sweet frits
A All A All monqoes monqoes are are de/icios de/icios Concluslon Concluslon
( ub[ecL Lerm ( redlcaLe 1erm or ( ub[ecL Lerm ( redlcaLe 1erm or
or Mlnor 1erm ) Ma[or 1erm) or Mlnor 1erm ) Ma[or 1erm)
MIddIo Torm MIddIo Torm
Predicate Term
SYIIOGISTIC ARG\MNT SYIIOGISTIC ARG\MNT
Mnjor Mnjor
romIso romIso
MInor MInor
IromIso IromIso
LLCGI@IC AkGU,LN@ LLCGI@IC AkGU,LN@
ub[ecL 1erm ub[ecL 1erm sub[ecL Lerm of Lhe concluslon sub[ecL Lerm of Lhe concluslon
also called Lhe mlnor Lerm for Lhe also called Lhe mlnor Lerm for Lhe
arrangemenL of premlses arrangemenL of premlses
redlcaLe 1erm redlcaLe 1erm predlcaLe Lerm of Lhe predlcaLe Lerm of Lhe
concluslon also called Lhe ma[or Lerm for Lhe concluslon also called Lhe ma[or Lerm for Lhe
arrangemenL of premlses arrangemenL of premlses
Mlddle 1erm Mlddle 1erm can be Lhe predlcaLe or sub[ecL can be Lhe predlcaLe or sub[ecL
oL oL Lhe respecLlve premlse never comes ln Lhe respecLlve premlse never comes ln
Lhe concluslon buL occurs Lwlce ln Lhe Lhe concluslon buL occurs Lwlce ln Lhe
premlses premlses