By: Alea Whitehead

The section explains the basics of muscle function and appearance

Types of Muscles
Skeletal: striated, voluntary
Cardiac: only in heart, striated, involuntary Smooth/Visceral: walls of organs, not striated,

involuntary

Functions
Movement
Posture Maintenance Heat Generation: of energy produced by ATP

escapes as heat Stabilization of joints Protection of some internal organs

In this unit, the skeletal muscle is the only muscle we will focus on since it is the most abundant in the body.

Breaking Down Skeletal Muscle

Muscle Made of 100s-1000s of muscle cells. Covered by epimysium (connective tissue that binds muscles into funtional groups) Blood vessels and nerve fibers Fasicle Portion of muscle Discrete bundle of muscle cells surrounded by perimysium (9.1)

Breaking Down Skeletal Muscle

Muscle Fiber Striated, elongated, multinucleate Surrounded by endomysium or sarcolemma Sarcoplastic Reticulum (SR) inside each muscle cell: set of interconnecting tubules Myofibril Composed of myofilaments; banded Sarcomere Contractile unit composed of myofilaments made of contractile protein

Myofilaments: 2 Types
Actin (thin) filament: long bead like twisted double

strand of pearls; tropomyosin & troponin on strand Myosin (thick) filament: rod-like tail with two globular heads

Bands
A bands 1 sarcomere Extends from Z line to next Z line Contains both actin and myosin I bands Contain actin (9.3)

Sliding Filament Theory of Contraction

Crossbridge Attachment: activated myosin heads are

strongly attracted to exposed binding sites on actin & crossbridge binding occurs Power Stroke: as myosin head binds, it changes from high energy configuration to its bent, low-energy shape, which causes the head to pull on thin filament, sliding it toward the center of the sarcomere As new ATP molecule binds to myosin head, myosin crossbridge is released from actin Cocking of Myosin Head: hydrolysis of ATP to ADP and Pi provides energy needed to return head to cocked position, which gives it potential energy for next attachment (9.6)

Neuromuscular Junction
Site where nerve and muscle fiber meet
Acetylcholine (ACh): neurotransmitter that relays

message from nerve to muscle fiber Acetylcholine esterase (AChE): an enzyme that breaks down Ach (9.7)

Regulation of Contraction Mechanism

ACh is released at neuromuscular junction
Calcium diffuses Tropomyosin moves & exposes active sites on actin

Linkages form between actin and myosin

Muscle fiber shortens AChE is released and decomposes ACh Muscle fiber relaxes

This section explains the following systems that activates muscles for movement.

Action Potential
In normal conditions, there is a difference in ion

concentrations across the cell membrane.

Inside is slightly more negative Outside is slightly more positive

Action Potential (AP): predictable electrical sequences

of changes that covers the entire surface of the membrane.

The 3 Steps of Action Potential

1.

Depolarization and generation of end plate potential

ACh molecules attach to ACh receptors Opens gated ion channels that allow Na+ and K+ to pass Na+ diffuses in and K+ diffuses out (More Na than K) Depolarizaion

2. Generation and propagation of the AP AP spreads in all directions from nm junction

The 3 Steps in Action Potential

1.

Repolarization
Sarcolemma is restored to its initial polarized state Na+ chs close and K= chs stay open
More pos ions leaving than coming in Inside becomes more negative than outside

Refractory period: when no new AP can occur Na+/K+ pump restores ion concentrations (9.8)

Action Potential Scan

Excitation-Contraction Coupling
The AP ultimately activates muscle contraction
The AP across the sarcolemma spreads to sarcoplasmic

reticulum

Excitation-Contraction Coupling
Ca2+ channels on SR open and release Ca2+ ions into sarcoplasm 2. Ca2+ ions bind to troponin 3. Troponin- Ca2+ ion complex moves tropomyosin and exposes actin subunit active site 4. Mysosin heads bind to actin subunit active site.
1.

EC ends and contraction process begins Eventually, active transport moves Ca2+ ions back into SR (9.10)

9.12

This system we will be talking about explains the parts and functions of the hair nails and skin

General Anatomy

A large organ composed of all 4 tissue types 22 square feet 1-2 mm thick Weighs 10 lbs. 2 layers of skin
Epidermis is epithelial tissue only Dermis is layer of connective tissue, nerve and muscle

Subcutaneous Tissue (Hypodermis) is a layer of adipose

and areolar tissue

subQ= subcutaneous injection intradermal= within the skin layer

Epidermis
Contains no blood vessels
4 types of cells 5 distinct strata (layers) of cells

(5.2)

Cell Types of the Epidermis

Keratinocytes-90% Produce keratin Melanocytes-8% Produces melanin pigment Langerhan cells From bone marrow Provides immunity Merkel cells in deepest layer Form touch receptor with sensory neuron

Stratum Basale
Deepest single layer of cells
Called stratum germinativum Cells attached to each other and to basement

membrane by desmosomes and hemidesmosomes

Stratum Spinosum
8-10 cell layers held together by desmosomes
During slide preparation, cells shrink and look spiny Melanin taken in by phagocytes from nearby

melanocytes

Stratum Granulosum
3-5 layers of flat dying cells
Show nuclear degeneration Contain dark-staining keratohyalin granules

Contain lamellar granules that release lipid that repels

water

Stratum Lucidum
Seen in thick skin on palms and soles of feet
Three to five layers of clear, flat, dead cells

Stratum Corneum
25-30 layers of flat dead cells filled with keratin and

surrounded by lipids Continuosly shed Barrier to light, heat, water, chemicals and bacteria Friction stimulates callus formation (5.2)

Keratinization & Epidermal Growth

Stem cells divide to produce keratinocytes
As keratinocytes are pushed up towards the surface,

they fill with keratis 4 week journery Hormone EGF (epidermal growth factor) can speed up process Psoriasis= chronic skin disorder
Cells shed in 7-10 days as flaky silvery scales Abnormal keratin produced

Dermis
Connective tissue layer composed of collagen & elastic

fibers, fibroblasts, macrophages and flat cells Contains hair follicles, glands, nerves & blood vessels Major regions of dermis
Papillary region Reticular region

Papillary Region
20% of dermis
Finger-like projections: dermal papillae Functions Anchors epidermis to dermis Contains capillaries that feed epidermis Contains Meissners Corpuscles (touch) and free nerve endings (pain and temp)

Reticular Region
Dense irregular connective tissue
Packed with oil glands, sweat gland ducts, fat and hair

follicles Provides strength, extensibility and elasticity to skin

Hypodermis (Subcutaneous Region)

Deepest layer
Missing on eyelids, nipples, genitals, and shins Insulator

Shock Absorber
Stores fat as energy reserve

Skin Color Pigments

Melanin produced in epidermis by melanocytes Same # of melanocytes in everyone, but different amounts of pigment produced Melanocytes converts tyrosine to melanin Carotene in dermis Yellow-orange pigment Hemoglobin Red, oxygen-carrying pigment in blood cells

Skin color pigments

Freckles or liver spots= melanocytes in a patch
Albinisim: inherited lack of tyrosinase; no pigment Vitiligo= autoimmune loss of melanocytes in areas of

the skin produces white patches

Functions & Anatomy of Hair

Functions Touch receptors (hair root plexus) senses light touch, prevents heat loss, decreases sunburn, eyelashes help protect eyes Structure Epidermal derivatives Shaft =visible, root= below the surface, follicle= surrounds the root Cells sink inward during development to form

Hair, oil glands, sweat glands, nails

Structures and Growth

Arrector pili Smooth muscle in dermis contracts with cold or fear Forms Goosebumps as hair is pulled vertically Hair root plexus Detects hair movement Growth cycle Growth stage: lasts 2-6 years Resting stage: lasts for 3 months Normal hair loss= 70-100 hairs per day

Hair Color
Dark hair= true melanin
Blond and Red= melanin with iron and sulfur Graying= decline in melanin production

White hair= air bubbles in medullary shaft

Glands in Skin
Sebaceous (oil) glands Sebem

Combination of cholesterol, proteins, fats and salts Inhibits growth of bacteria and fungi (ringworm)

Acne= bacterial inflammation of glands

Cerumicous glands= waxy secretion in ear canal Sudoriferous (sweat) glands Eccrine glands= regulates body temp. with perspiration Apocrine glands= armpit and pubic region

Structure of Nails (5.6)

Tightly packed, keratinized cells
Nail body Nail root= lunula is white due to thickened stratum

basale Eponychium (cuticle) Nail Matrix Growth is 1mm per week- faster in summer and on must-used hand

Thermoregulation
Releasing of sweat onto the skin Perspiration and its evaporation lowers body temperature Shivering and constriction of surface vessels Raise internal body temperature as needed

Protection
Tight cell junctions prevent bacterial invasion
Lipids released hinder evaporation Melanin and other pigment protect somewhat against

UV light Langerhans cells alert immune system

Excretion and Absorption

400 mL evaporates daily
Small amounts of salt, CO2, ammonia and urea

excreted Lipid soluble substances can be absorbed through the skin

Vitamins A, D, E and K, oxygen and CO2 Acetone and dry-cleaning fluid, lead, mercury, arsenic,

poisons in poison ivy and oak

Transdermal Drug Administration

Method by which drugs in a patch enter the body
Drug absorption most rapid where skin is thin

(scrotum, face and scalp) Examples

Nitroglycerin= prevention of chest pain from coronary

artery disease Scopolamine= motion sickness Estradiol= estrogen replacement therapy Nicotine= stop smoking alternative

Burns
Destruction of proteins of the skin Chemicals, electrical, heat Problems that result Shock due to water, plasma and plasma protein loss Circulatory and kidney problems from loss of plasma Bacterial infection

Skin Cancer
1 million cases diagnosed per year
3 common forms of skin cancer Basal Cell Carcinoma (rarely metastasize) Squamous Cell Carcinoma (may metastasize) Malignant Melanomas (metastasize rapidly) Most in young women comes from melanocytes