Hodgetts & Luthans 2003 p.

379 define motivation as

A psychological process through which unsatisfied wants or needs lead to drives that are aimed at goals or incentives.

Francesco & Gold 2005 p.125 define motivation as

The amount of effort that an individual puts into doing something.

Francesco & Gold 2005 explain: The majority of motivational theories originates within an American cultural context. In fact, when several of these theories were tested with non-western subjects, they received mixed support suggesting that these models do not identify variables or processes useful for understanding what motivates non-Americans (Hofstede 1980)

Hodgetts & Luthans (2003) suggest All humans are motivated by goals that they value The process is universal, however the goals pursued are not, and instead are culturally influenced Goal differences include the value placed upon respect and power, balance with family life and commitments, money and job status examples

Hodgetts & Luthans (2003) identify Content Theories

Focus on understanding what people want, or

what initiates their behaviour to work

Process theories
Focus on how peoples wants, needs and desires

affect their behaviour or how work behaviour is initiated, redirected and halted

Hierarchy of Needs (Abraham Maslow)

Focuses on five basic needs which form part

of a need hierarchy
Self actualisation Esteem needs Social needs

Safety needs
Physiological needs

International Evidence Hodgetts & Luthans 03) Haire, Ghiselli & Porter 66
Across 14 cultures upper level needs were of

Nevis 83

particular importance Examined need satisfaction and need importance of Maslows four highest needs of managers
Western orientation of motivation, Asian cultures

emphasise the importance of society. Suggested amendment and inclusion of belonging (social) need level

Hofstedes 1972 research on Maslow

Self-actualization and esteem needs rank highest

for professionals and managers Security, earning, benefits and physical working conditions are most important amongst lower rank unskilled employees There are greater differences between job categories than there are between countries when it comes to employee motivation. Hofstede, 1972 in Hodgetts & Luthans, 2003 p.385

Research has not been able to establish the validity of the need hierarchy itself (Steers, porter, and Bigley 1996, p.15). Even in USA, needs other than those identified by Maslow motivate people. for example: Spiritual needs. Circumstances and values of a particular culture influence the ordering and importance of needs. The values of individualism and collectivism can make hierarchy more or less relevant.

If a culture is collectively oriented, the individualistic higher order needs of selfesteem and self-actualization could be irrelevant. In cultures that are high on uncertainty avoidance, safety and security needs are likely to be most important. Example: Japan and Lifetime employment.

A masculine or feminine orientation can also influence the importance of different needs. In a feminine culture, such as Sweden or Finland, people value the traditionally feminine ideals such as quality of life and working relationships, so social needs dominate the motivation of workers over productivity (Adler 1997).

Maslows hierarchy of needs theory is potentially useful for managers. It is clear, however, that the five needs in the order proposed by Maslow do not motivate everyone. What needs are meaningful and in what order that might influence people in a particular culture can provide insight into how managers can motivate employees.

Herzberg Two Factor Theory of Motivation

Motivators achievement recognition, responsibility, advancement
Hygiene factors job context issues, salary, working conditions, work relations, supervision, policies

 Hodgetts & Luthans (2003 p.385)

if hygiene factors are not taken care of or are deficient, there will be dissatisfaction. However, if hygiene factors are taken care of, there may be no dissatisfaction, but there may not be satisfaction. Only by providing the motivators will there be satisfaction

Satisfaction and dissatisfaction represent two separate dimensions rather than opposite ends of a single continuum. Herzberg recommends job enrichment. Enriched jobs will motivate employees belonging to cultures with high individualism and low power distance, such as USA.

Even in USA professionals respond well to job enrichment. However blue collar and farm workers often do not like having an enriched job and couls experience reduced levels of satisfaction and motivation.

International evidence Hodgetts & Luthans (2003)

Studies in New Zealand, Greece, Zambia and Israel

broadly support Herzbergs findings

Cross-cultural study broadly suggested Job content

factors tend to be more important than Job context factors. French respondents did not quite conform to these results and valued security and fringe benefits more highly.

Expectancy Theory (Vroom) Guerrier 99 or

Adler 97 Motivation is influenced by a persons belief that effort will lead to performance, performance will lead to specific outcomes and these outcomes are valued by the individual M motivation = E expectancy x V valence Adler (1997 p.163)
depend of the extent to which employees believe they have control over the outcomes of their efforts as well as on the managers abilities to identify desired rewards, both of which vary across cultures.

International evidence
Impact of Individualism (Adler 97) calculative view of the employer
Impact of Collectivism moral aspects of commitment to the employer Impact of orientation towards the environment

(Kluckhohn & Strodbeck 1961)

Adlers (1997) comments identifies that cultures where expectancy theory works best are those that emphasise internal attribution

Motivation is culture bound

Developed in the USA, by Americans for Americans

Reflect the value systems of Americans Unfortunately many American as well as non-American managers have treated American theories as the best or only way to understand motivation. They are neither. American theories although assumed to be universal, have failed to provide consistently useful explanations outside the United States.
Adler 1997 p. 166

Adam (1963, 1965 see Guerrier, 1999) Suggests people are concerned with the relative level of their rewards compared with others Comparison based upon:

INPUT

OUTPUT

Experience Education Effort Performance

Pay, Recognition Advancement, Achievement, Growth

Miles et. al (1989) and Huseman et. al (1985, 1987) empirically tested models that classify three types of individual:

Benevolent IO Higher ratio of inputs to outcomes, Valuable contribution, Giving rather than taking Equity sensitive IO Follow the equity model strictly, Equal inputs and outcomes, Likely to react with feelings to perceived inequity
Entitled IO Higher outcomes than inputs, Have the right to receive more than they deserve, Receiving rather than giving

Wheeler (2002) ties Adams equity model together with Hofstede's theory on cultural differences Connection between cultural values and equity sensitivity Employees high in collectivism and femininity would tend to be benevolent and would accept lower pay than entitled Employees low in collectivism and femininity would tend to be entitled

Femininity Benevolent

Equity Sensitives

Entitled Collectivism

National culture provides some useful insights into measuring motivation but other factors should not be discounted Job categories and levels in the organisation may be more important Managers across cultures appear to be motivated by higher level needs Often there is broad support for findings, in particular Herzberg and Maslow

Job design refers to

Job content and methods used on the job and

how it fits within the organisation Culture bound due to the way work is organised individually or collectively, informally or formally Pace of production lines (Japan fast and limited control; Sweden slow and more control; USA somewhere in between)

Work centrality refers to

The importance of work in an individuals life

relative to other areas of interest Related to Masculinity and Femininity dimensions of Hofstede Karoshi burnout in Japanese companies

Reward systems refers to Balance between financial rewards and nonfinancial such as feedback and recognition
See examples in your handout Links to Hofstedes individualism and

collectivism and masculinity and femininity dimensions