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BS TCOM
Radar System
FALL 2011
Mon,Tue, Wednesdays 10:00 11:00 a.m.
Waqar Ishaq
BS Telecom
BS Telecom 2
General Information-1
Homework Assignments
Feel free to work together on these, BUT
All submitted work must be your own work

Web and other sources of information
You may use any and all resources, BUT
You must acknowledge all sources
You must enclose in quotation marks all parts copied
directly and you must give the full source information
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General Information - 2
Exam and Homework Answers
For problems set, most marks will be given for
the solution procedure used, not the answer
So: please give as much information as you can
when answering questions: partial credit cannot
be given if there is nothing to go on
If something appears to be missing from the
question set, make and give assumptions
used to find the solution
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General Information - 3
Class Grades
Emphasis on overall effort and results
Balance between homework, tests, and final
exam:
Homework - 15%
Quiz - 10%
Mid term - 20%
Final exam - 55%
BS Telecom 5
Radar System Course Plan
-
BS Telecom 6
Lecture 1 Outline
Introduction to Radar Systems
Background
Time, frequency, and spectrum considerations
Range calculations
Pulse repetition frequency issues
Derivation of radar equation
Radar applications
Check out Introduction
to Radar Systems, 2
nd

ed., Merrill I. Skolnik,
McGraw-Hill, 2001,
ISBN 0-07-290980-3
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Lecture 1 Outline
Background
Range calculations
Radar applications
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Background 1
RADAR = Radio Detection And Ranging
Detection of targets (primary skin reflection)
Range (time delay)
Velocity (differential time delay or Doppler)
Angle (azimuth)
Target Characteristics (echo properties)
Ground mapping (under, above, space)
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Background 2
Radar principles:
Transmit a very short (~ 1s) burst of radio
waves (usually at microwave frequencies)
Wait for reflected radiowaves (the echo) to
come back to the radar
Process the returned signal (the echo) using
radar parameters
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Background 3
Echo Strength
This is proportional to the Radar Cross Section
(RCS) of the target, and it tells us about the
SIZE of the target in radar terms
Delay Time
This is proportional to the range from the radar
to the target (and back!)
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Background 4
scatterer
t
1

t
2

Time delay = t
2
t
1
= t
d

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Background 5
First radar was Chain Home
Primitive COTS approach
HF (four spot frequencies, 20 to 55 MHz)
Tall transmit towers
Dipole detectors
A-Scan display
For more details, please visit
http://www.radarpages.co.uk/mob/ch/chainhome.htm
Necessitated by
imminence of
WW II
Well take
a brief look
at CH
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Chain Home 1
Curtain
Array
Transmit Receive
Receive
crossed dipoles
240 360
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Chain Home 2
Plan view of transmit facility with
a schematic of the antenna pattern
Back
lobe
Forward
lobe
Transmit
towers
The radar did
not track it
merely
floodlit the
area to be
investigated.

Receive lobes
were similar
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Chain Home 3
Here, five CH radars
cover a large section
of the coast
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Chain Home 4
A-Scan display PPI display
Amplitude
Distance
Possible
targets
Clutter
?
Possible
targets
Clutter
Movement of
radar trace
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Background 6
CH and all subsequent surveillance radars are
Primary Radars
Primary Radars use skin echo to detect targets
Most airports and controlled airspaces use both
Primary and Secondary Radars
Secondary radars relies on a cooperative target
to relay information from a transponder
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Background 7
Secondary radars transmit an encoded
signal to the targets transponder
The transponder replies with an encoded
message with information about the airplane
A typical transponder can be set to any of
4096 identifying codes
1

Military transponders are called IFF
(Identification, Friend or Foe)
1
see http:/virtualskies.arc.nasa.gov/communication/youDecide/Transponder
and http://www.trvacc.org/web/training/ref/squak.asp

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Lecture 1 Outline
Background
Range calculations
Radar applications
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Time, frequency, and spectrum
considerations 1
c = f , where c = velocity of light in vacuum = 3 10
8
m/s,
f = frequency, in Hz
and = wavelength, in meters

Example:
What is the wavelength for a frequency of 3 GHz?

Answer:
Wavelength = = c/f = (3 10
8
)/(3 10
9
)
= 10
-1

= 0.1m = 10 cm
Important note on units
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considerations 2
Radar engineers use a wide mix of units:
Miles, yards, meters, nautical miles, knots,
hours, etc.
Calculations are easier if a standard set of
units are used
The international standards for electrical
engineers is the MKS system
meters, kilograms, seconds
Do NOT mix units!
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considerations 3
Scaling in MKS units
1,000 or 10
3
kilo k
1,000,000 or 10
6
Mega M
1,000,000,000 or 10
9
Giga G
1,000,000,000,000 or 10
12
Tera T

1,000 (or 10
-3
) milli m
1,000,000 (or 10
-6
) micro
1,000,000,000 (or 10
-9
) nano n
1,000,000,000,000 (or 10
-12
) pico p
1,000,000,000,000,000 (or 10
-15
) femto f
BS Telecom 23
considerations 4A
All radio waves are polarized
The direction of the E field defines the
polarization sense
Direction
of travel
(z-axis)
E
H
E = Electric field
H = Magnetic field
E, H, and z-axes are
mutually orthogonal
This is a
linearly
polarized
wave
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considerations 4B
The E vector may rotate leading to
another special case: Circular Polarization
Direction
of travel
(z-axis)
This is a
right hand
circularly
polarized
wave
E = Electric field
E
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considerations 5
Direction
of travel
(z-axis)
E
H
The E and H fields vary sinusoidally at the frequency of the
wave and with distance from the source (and reflector)
This is a
linearly
polarized
wave
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considerations 6
Radio waves are reflected by smooth
conducting surfaces; e.g. a metal sheet, water
Treat reflection using ray theory, as in optics.
Normal to surface
o o
Incident ray Reflected ray
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considerations 7A
Non-conductive materials allow radio
waves to pass through, but .
If dielectric constant = 1.0 (air), partial
reflection will occur
Medium 1 Medium 2
Incident ray
Partially
reflected ray
Partially
transmitted ray
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considerations 7B
Can take the real part of the dielectric
constant = refractive index = n
reflection coefficient, q,can be found from
the two refractive indices of media 1 and 2

q

= 1 -
(n
1
- n
2
)
2

(n
1
+ n
2
)
2

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considerations 8
How to measure the energy of a radio wave?
Difficult to measure volts and amps above about
100 MHz
Can measure power (watts)
All radar calculations are carried out in Watts
but more likely in W, nW, pW, etc.;
or in dBW, dBm, etc.
Preferred units for link
budget calculations
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considerations 9
All radio signals have a defined bandwidth
Many definitions of bandwidth
null-to-null, 3 dB, absolute, noise, etc.
In general, bandwidth = amount of
frequency space occupied by the signal
Some examples are
FM radio (200 kHz)
Analog TV (video + sound = 6 MHz)
Otherwise known as
spectrum occupancy
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considerations 10
Radio receiver bandwidth is defined by
filters (usually at IF)

Noise bandwidth = B Hz
V(f) V(f)
0 B
f f
f
c
f
c
- B/2 f
c
+ B/2
Ideal
Real
Baseband Passband
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Lecture 1 Outline
Background
Range calculations
Radar applications
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Range Calculation - 1
Velocity, v, = distance/time
Can assume v = 3 10
8
m/s = 300 m/s
Round trip distance = 150 m/s
Example: if the delay is 1,500 s, the range to the
target is 225 km
Some useful numbers
Time delay = 1 s per 150 m of target range
Time delay for a target at 1 km = 6.67 s
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Range, R = (c T
R
)/2 (eqn. 1.1 in Skolnik)
where T
R
is the time taken for the round trip of the pulse from
the radar to the target and back again, in seconds. The factor
2 appears in the denominator because of the two-way (round-
trip) propagation.

With the range in kilometers (km) or nautical miles (nmi),
and T
R
in microseconds (s), eqn. (1.1) becomes
R(km) = 0.15T
R
(s) or R(nmi) = 0.081 T
R
(s)
Example
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What is the range in kilometers and nautical miles
to a target with a time delay of 27 s?

R(km) = 0.15T
R
(s) or R(nmi) = 0.081 T
R
(s)
= 0.15 27 or = 0.081 27
= 4.05 km or = 2.187 nmi
This calculation is for a single pulse. Most radars send more than one pulse to
provide for sample averaging and updates on target position in the required
time interval for tracking resolution. Echo from a distant target can arrive
after the second pulse in the pulse train, leading to range ambiguities
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Range Calculation 4A
Primary radar
prf = 10 kHz
Target #1,
range 6 km
Target #2,
range 18 km
Time,
seconds
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Range Calculation 4B
Primary radar
prf = 10 kHz
Target #1,
range 6 km
Target #2,
range 18 km
Time,
seconds
Remembering Range in km =
0.15T
R
(s), lets look at the A-scan
A prf of 10 kHz gives
one pulse every
0.0001 s = 0.1 ms
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Range Calculation 5
Amplitude
Time, t,
in ms 0 0.04 0.1 0.12 0.14
Transmit pulse Transmit pulse
Target #1 Target #1 Target #2
A range of 6 km gives a delay time of 40 s and
a range of 18 km gives a delay time of 120 s

Note that target #2 is so far away that the echo
does not reach the radar until after the next
pulse, giving an incorrect range of 3 km
BS Telecom 39
Lecture 1 Outline
Background
Range calculations
Radar applications
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Pulse Repetition Frequency Issues 1
Unambiguous range = R
unamb
=c/(2f
p
)
where f
p
= the pulse repetition frequency (prf)
NOTE:
Keep the units the same! If the velocity of
light is in m/s, the range will be in meters
Example:
f
p
= 1 kHz = 1,000 Hz
R
unamb
= c/(2f
p
) = (3 10
8
)/(2 1,000)
= 1.5 10
5
= 150 km
Equation 1.2
in Skolnik
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Example: We require an unambiguous range of at least 200 km.
What is the maximum prf to meet this requirement?

Round trip time = t
p
= (2 range)/c seconds
= (2 2 10
5
)/(3 10
8
) seconds
= 1.33 10
-3
seconds
= 1.33 ms

Thus max. prf = f
p
= 1/t
p
= 1/(1.33 10
-3
) = 751.8797 ~ 750 Hz
Alternatively, since R
unamb
= c/(2f
p
), f
p
= c/(2 200 10
3
)

= (3 10
8
)/(2 200 10
3
) = 750 Hz
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Typical prf values
300 Hz long range radar 500 km max. range
(strategic defense and airport facilities)

8,000 Hz very short range radar 18.75 km
max. range
(local defense against missiles)

300 1,700 Hz are widely used values of prf
C- and S-band radars
Ku- and Ka-band radars
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Radar Frequencies 1
Specific radiolocation
Band Nominal (radar) bands based on ITU
designation frequency range assignments for Region 2

HF 3 30 MHz
VHF 30 300 MHz 138 144; 216 225 MHz
UHF 300 1000 MHz 420 450; 890 942 MHz
L 1000 2000 MHz 1215 1400 MHz
S 2000 4000 MHz 2300 2500; 2700 3700 MHz
C 4000 8000 MHz 5250 5925 MHz
X 8000 12,000 MHz 8500 10680 MHz
Ku 12 18 GHz 13.4 14.0; 15.7 17.7 GHz
K 18 27 GHz 24.05 24.25 GHz
Ka 27 40 GHz 33.4 36.0 GHz
mm 40 300 GHz
Table 1.1 in Skolnik
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Radar Frequencies 2
Low frequencies (<6 GHz)
Little rain attenuation, hence
Long(er) range, which requires
High(er) power and
Low prf
Large dead zone possible
Simpler T/R cell design
Best for large area defense
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Radar Frequencies 3
High frequencies (>8 GHz)
Rain attenuation becoming significant, hence
Short(er) range, which can use
Low(er) power and
High prf
Large dead zone NOT possible
More complicated T/R cell design
Best for local defense
Eased by low
power needs
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Radar Frequencies 4
Plane
wavefront
launched by
radar
High frequencies and elevation
angles, very directive
As frequencies/ elevation angles reduce,
energy forms strong ground wave and
can also produce some scattered energy
over the horizon (OTH)
BS Telecom 47
Lecture 1 Outline
Background
Range calculations
Radar applications
BS Telecom 48
Radar Equation 1
Ever
expanding
spheres of
flux
Isotropic antenna
radiating equally
in every direction
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Radar Equation 2
If the isotropic antenna has a transmit
power of P
t
watts, what is the flux density
at any given distance, R (range), from the
isotropic antenna?
Since the isotropic antenna radiates equally
in every direction, we need to find the
surface area of the sphere at distance, R
Surface area of the sphere = 4tR
2

Hence we can find the
power flux density
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Radar Equation 3
The power flux density (pfd) at a distance R
from the isotropic antenna is given by:

pfd = P
t
/ 4tR
2
W/m
2

Example
Skolnik
equation 1.3
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Radar Equation 4
If an isotropic antenna radiates 10 watts of
power, what is the power flux density at a
distance of 1 km?
pfd = P
t
/ 4tR
2
= 10 / 4t(1,000)
2

= 10 / 12,566,370.62 = 0.7957747 10
-6
W/m
2

= 0.7957747 W/m
2

= 795.8 nW/m
2
Note 1: keep the
units correct
Note 2: this value
is very small
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Radar Equation 5
The power flux density (pfd) at a distance R
from the isotropic antenna is given by:

pfd = P
t
/ 4tR
2
W/m
2

But what if the antenna is NOT isotropic?
A non-isotropic antenna will have a preferred
direction in which more energy is transmitted
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Radar Equation 6
Most radar antennas are not isotropic
Additional power in the required direction
is the gain of the antenna over that of an
isotropic antenna
Define antenna gain, G, as

G =
Flux density with Test Antenna at range R
Flux density with Isotropic Antenna at range R
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Radar Equation 7
Maximum
power in this
direction
Minimum
power in this
direction
360
o
Contour,
referred to as an
antenna pattern,
showing the power
radiated in the
given directions
0
o

90
o

180
o

270
o

The difference in
power can be described
by the gain in these
directions
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Radar Equation 8
Antennas that radiate in a preferred direction
are called directional antennas
The Gain, G
(u)
over the preferred angular
range u, is given by

G
(u)
= (P
(u)
) / (P
o
/ 4t)

Power transmitted per unit
solid angle by the antenna
Total power transmitted by
the antenna in all directions
4t is the total solid angle
from the center of a sphere
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Radar Equation 9
There are two different measures for describing
the power distribution around an antenna
The directivity of the antenna; and
The gain of the antenna (sometimes more correctly
called the power gain)
Directivity is referenced to the mean power
radiated
Gain is referenced to an isotropic antenna
This is the more important descriptor.
We will look at how it increase the flux density
BS Telecom 57
Radar Equation 10
Antenna Gain = G
Power = P
t
watts
1 m
2

surface
R
Power flux density, F, for a directive antenna with gain, G, is

F =
G P
t

4 t R
2

Equation 1.4 in Skolnik
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Radar Equation 11
When the gain, G, of an antenna is referred
to, it is usually the maximum gain that is
being spoken of
The Maximum Gain, G, is usually achieved
on Bore Sight, i.e. on the principal axis of
the antenna
Antenna patterns are reference to 0 dB (the
gain of an isotropic antenna) most
calculations are carried out in dB
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Radar Equation 12
Second side lobe
Third side lobe
First side lobe
Main lobe
Boresight
direction
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Radar Equation 13
u
Gain (dB)
-10
-20
-30
-40
-3
0
3 dB down from
peak gain
3 dB
beamwidth
Rectangular (or Cartesian) plot of the angle off bore sight
Main lobe
Side lobes
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Radar Equation 14
Parabolic antennas are the most common
form of directive antennas in microwave
communications
The gain of a parabolic antenna is given by
gain = 4tA/
2
= (tD/)
2

A = Aperture area = t(radius)
2
= t(diameter/2)
2

Therefore, 4tA/
2
= 4 t(t(diameter/2)
2
)/
2
= 4 t
2
D
2
/4
2
= (tD/)
2

Example
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Radar Equation 15
A parabolic antenna has an aperture diameter,
D, of 2m. It will operate at 12 GHz. What is
the gain, both as a ratio and dB value?

Answer: First find the wavelength
Velocity of radio wave = frequency wavelength,
i.e. c = f
Thus 3 10
8
= 12 10
9
, and so
= 3 10
8
/ 12 10
9
m
= 0.025 m
BS Telecom 63
Radar Equation 16
Now we can find the gain from

gain = 4tA/
2
= (tD/)
2
and so the gain, G,
of the parabolic antenna is

G = (t 2 / 0.025)
2
= 63,165.46817 = 63,165
or, in dB, G = 10 log (63,165.46817) = 48 dB
But this is only the theoretical answer!
BS Telecom 64
Radar Equation 17
Antennas are never perfect
The actual gain achieved is therefore less
than the theoretical gain calculated
The difference can be thought of as the
efficiency of the antenna, q
Actual gain = Theoretical gain q
q value is between 1 (perfect) and 0
Example
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Radar Equation 18
Example:
The calculated gain of an antenna is 50 dB. The
efficiency of the antenna is 75%. What is the real
gain of the antenna?
Answer:
First: change 50 dB to a ratio 100,000
Second: Multiply by 0.75 gain of 75,000
Third: convert back to dB 48.8 dB
The real gain of the antenna is 48.8 dB
BS Telecom 66
Radar Equation 19
Sometimes, the real gain is calculated from
a knowledge of the effective aperture
The effective aperture of an antenna is the
physical aperture q, that is:

A
e
= A q

This q is the same efficiency used earlier
Example
BS Telecom 67
Radar Equation 20
A 2m diameter antenna has an efficiency of
75%. What are the real and effective
apertures?
Real aperture, A = t (radius)
2
= t (1)
2
= t
= 3.14 m
2

Effective aperture = A
e
= qA = q 3.14
= 0.75 3.14
= 2.36 m
2

Derivation of
Radar Equation
will be in lecture #2
BS Telecom 68
Lecture 1 Outline
Background
Range calculations
Radar applications
BS Telecom 69
Basic Pulse Radar
T
X

Transmitter
R
X

Receiver
Switch
C
Controller
Antenna
Display unit
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Basic Pulse Radar
T
X

Transmitter
R
X

Receiver
Switch
C
Controller
Antenna
Display unit
This is the
T/R cell
BS Telecom 71
Types of Radar 1
Type Application
Pulse (incoherent) Target detection
Range Measurement
Surveillance

Doppler (coherent) Velocity measurements

MTI Separates moving targets from clutter

Pulse Doppler Range and Velocity
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Types of Radar 2
Type Application
Tracking Range and Angle measurement
Fire control, Guidance
Synthetic Aperture High spatial resolution
Very rapid tracking
AEW (AWACS) Airborne pulse Doppler:
separates moving targets from clutter
using a moving radar
(Highly complicated space-time
adaptive processing)

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