Demand forecasting : It is estimation of future demand. It can not be hundred percent precise.

But it gives a reliable approximation regarding possible outcome with a reasonable accuracy. Demand forecasting is done at 1 : Micro level : Individual firm makes demand forecasting. 2 :Industry Level : It means demand estimate for a product of industry. 3 : Macro Level : It refers to aggregate demand for Industrial output by the nation as a whole.

Why demand forecasting : Production planning. Sales forecasting

Control of business
Inventory control Growth and long term Investment pro gramme

Stability
Economic Planning and policy making.

For business decision making purpose firm may undertake

short term and long term forecasting. Short term forecasting : Why? 1 : Evolving sales policy 2 : Determining Pricing policy

3 : Evolving a purchase policy

4 : fixation of sales target 5 : determining short term financial planning

Long Term Forecasting : Why?

1 : Business planning 2 : Manpower planning

3 : Long term financial planning

Method of Demand forecasting :

1 : Expert opinion method 2 : Opinion poll or market research method

3 : Survey of Spending Plans

4 : Economic indicators 5 ; Projections 6 : Econometric models Export opinion method :

There are two Important methods

a) Jury of Executive Opinion b) Delphi Method

Jury of executive opinion : Forecast are generally generated by group of corporate executives assemble together. Members are from different

functional areas within the corporations are from different

corporations. This is a successful technique. But the danger is panel member who is not knowledgeable but persuasive

may influence result to a great extent.

Delphi Method : In this method panel of expert is form but it does not meet . The process is carried out by sequential series of questions and answers. Process is carried out till differences in

answers are narrowed down.

Opinion Poll and Market Research :

Rather than soliciting expert opinion poll survey a population whose activity may determine future trends. Choice of sample is of utmost importance because the use of an unrepresentative sample may give completely misleading results. Market research is closely related to opinion polling. It provides lot more information about why a consumer is buying or not buying, what

characteristics a consumer thinks are most important etc.

Survey of spending plan :

The use of survey of spending plan is quite similar to

opinion poll and market research and the method of data collection are also quite alike. However data collected is of macro type that is related to whole economy. Economic Indicator : to make correct forecasting it is very much essential to identify correct indicator whose direction is able to predict future trend of demand.

There are three types of indicators

1 ) Leading: It tells us where we are going. e.g. Building

permits, stock market index, money supply etc.

2 ) coincidence : It indicates where we are. e.g. Sales,

Personal Income, industrial Production etc.

3 ) Lagging : It indicates where we have been. e.g change

in labour cost per unit of output,loans outstanding, ratio of

manufacturing and trade inventories to sales.

Projections :
Past data is projected into future without taking into consideration reasons for the change. It is simply

assume that past trends will continue.

Following are projection techniques : Compound growth rate

Visual time series projections

Time series projections . Time series projections using least squares technique

Constant compound growth rate : the constant growth rate it is necessary to go from the amount in the first year to the amount in the last year. This much a specific sum deposited in an interest bearing account that is compounded annually. Formula

In this case first and last years of data is required and to calcul

problem is solved in the same way as if we were to calculate h

grows in a certain numbers of years at a constant rate of intere

( 1 + i ) to power n = E / B
E- Last year's amount, B first year's amount, i Growth rate n No of years.

Visual time series Projections - Past data is plotted on a graph and most fitted curve is plotted. Time series analysis :

Q 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

TC 150

TFC

TVC

AC x 300 176

AFC AVC x x

MC x

280 72 500 140 127 1099 146 210

Q 1 : Find the average cost when Q = 2

Q 2 : Find total cost when Q = 4 Q 3 : Find marginal cost when Q = 6

Q 4 : Find total variable cost when Q =10

Q 5 : Find average variable cost when Q = 8

Following are different algebraic expression of production

functions. Decide whether each one has constant, increasing or returns to scale.

1 : Q = 100 + 50L + 50K

2 : Q = 50L + 50 K = 50LK 3 : 50L + 50K

4 : Q = 100L K

Q 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

TC TFC TVC 150 150 0 300 150 150 430 150 280 528 150 378 600 150 450 650 150 500 840 150 690 1039 150 889 1249 150 1099 1464 150 1314 1674 150 1524

AC AFC AVC x x x 300 150 150 215 75 140 176 50 126 150 37.5 112.5 130 30 100 140 25 115 148.42 21.42 127 156.12 18.75 137.37 162.66 16.66 146 167.4 15 152.4

MC x 150 130 98 72 50 190 199 210 215 210

Q 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

TC 120

TFC

TVC

AC x 265 161

AFC AVC x x

MC x

264 85 525 120 97 768 97 127

Cost functions are give as follows TC = 100 + 60Q 3Q +0.1Q TC = 100 + 60Q + 3Q TC = 100 + 60Q Answer the following Question for all the functions. Q1 Find out Average cost for tenth unit of out. Q 2 Find Marginal cost of fourth unit of out put.

Q 3 Find total fixed cost of 125th unit.

Q 4 find total cost of zero unit of out put. Marks will not be given with out working.

Q 1 : For a product the demand function is given as

Q = 140 2P If the product is sold at a price of Rs. 60 calculate the marginal revenue earned from the sale of

the product.
Q 2: The total cost function of a firm is estimated to be

TC = 200 6Q + 10Q. If current output is 10 units calculate

marginal cost . The total cost function of a firm is estimated to be TC = 150 +12Q. The total revenue is TR = 50Q 0.25Q. If out put is 18 units calculate profit.

Q : The production function of Neeraj tool is TP = 80L L. Calculate the maximum possible average product. Q : The cost function of a company i s AC = 200|Q + 40 + 8Q calculate the total variable cost of the firm at 25 units of output.

Q : The production function of a company for labour is

TP = 80L L calculate maximum possible average product of labour.

Q : The production function of Kalyani co for labour is

TP = 30L 1.5 L . Find out the number of labour after which marginal product becomes negative.

Q ; The long run cost function of a firm is TC = Q - 80Q +1900 What is the possible average cost. Q : The cost function of Sudha Ltd. Is TC = 200+8Q + 2Q. The firm is a perfectly competitive firm and is selling the product at Rs. 48. If out produced is 10 units calculate profit earned.

Q : For a monopoly firm demand function is P = 20 4Q.

Calculate average revenue if it sells four units of output. Q : A firm operating in a perfectly competitive market has an

average variable cost function = 800 80Q +8Q .

What is the price below which the firm has to shut down its operation in the short run.