10 January 2012 DR S. K.

NANDA 1
The Reservoir Rocks
Porosity
ISM
DHANBAD
LECTURE-03
07.03.11
10 January 2012 DR S. K. NANDA 2
Petrophysical Properties Of
Reservoir rocks
ISM
LECTURE- 03.2
31.08.09
10 January 2012 DR S. K. NANDA 3
Petrophysics
Study of physical properties of rocks.
For a rock to form a reservoir:
(a) It must have a certain storage capacity: this property is
characterized by the porosity.
(b) The fluids must be able to flow in the rock: this property is
characterized by the permeability.
(c) It must contain sufficient amount of hydrocarbons, with a
sufficient concentration: the impregnated volume is a factor
here,as well as saturation.
(d) The methods used to characterize reservoir rocks are
essentially core analysis and well logging.
The methods used to characterize reservoir rocks are
essentially core analysis and well logging.
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Porosity
Porosity is defined as percentage or
fraction of void to the bulk volume of the
rock.
The void space in reservoir rocks is the
inter-granular spaces between the
sedimentary particles
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Let us consider a rock sample. Its
apparent volume, or total volume V
T
,
consists of a solid volume V
S
and a pore
volume V
p
. The porosity is:
= expressed in %
= = = 1 -
V pore
--------
V
total
V
P
--------
V
T
--------
V
S
V
T
V
T
-
--------
VS
V
T
Porosity relations
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Intera Porosity relations
The porosity of interest to reservoir specialist is
that which allows the fluids in the pores to
circulate, is the effective porosity
u
which
corresponds to the pores connected to each
other and to formation.
Also defined is the total porosity
t,
corresponding to all the pores whether
interconnected or not, and to residual porosity

r
, which only takes account of isolated pores.

t,
=
u
+
r
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t, = u + r
(r) (u)
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Utility limits of porosity
The effective porosity of rocks varies
between less than 1% to 40%.
It is often stated that the porosity is:
(a) Low if < 5%
(b) Mediocre if 5% < < 10 %
(c) Average if 10%< < 20 %
(d) Good if 20%< < 30 %
(e) Excellent > 30%
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Remarks
A distinction is made between inter -
granular porosity, dissolution porosity
(as in lime stones for example) and
fracture porosity.
The fracture porosity related to rock
volume is often much less than 1%
As a rule, porosity decreases with
increasing depth.
10 January 2012 DR S. K. NANDA 10
Effective porosity is basically used
for reserve calculation.
In moderate to high porosity rocks,
there is little difference in total and
effective porosity, but low porosity
value there has appreciable and
significant difference.
Remarks
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Types on the basis of origin:
Original porosity (primary)
Induced porosity (secondary)
Rocks having original porosity are more
uniform in their characteristics than rocks
with an induced porosity
Porosity- related information
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Primary porosity
Is the space between grains that were not
compacted together completely
This is related to pores/voids between
sand grains or solid particles, as well as
space between sub layers and voids
created after decaying of organisms.
It is characterised by more or less uniform
distribution in the rock.
Found in sand and sand stones , clays ,
conglomerates.
Porosity- related information
10 January 2012 DR S. K. NANDA 13
Secondary porosity
Is the porosity created through alteration of rock,
commonly by processes such as dolomitization,
dissolution and fracturing
Developed as a result of diagenesis.
Connects the altered void spaces with fractures
resulting from tectonic disturbances.
Characterised with non uniform distribution and
it is not possible to establish any trend through
out the reservoir.
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On the basis of connectivity
Absolute and effective porosity are
distinguished by their access capabilities
to reservoir fluids
Art-micrograph of sandstone with oil
Void spaces
contributes
to absolute
porosity
Permeable spaces
contributes
to effective
porosity
10 January 2012 DR S. K. NANDA 15
Factors effecting the porosity
Relative arrangement of grains
Shape and size of grains,
Grain size distribution
Presence and type of cementing materials
Solution and precipitation of salts
Porosity decreases with reduction in grain size.
It also decreases with large variation in grain
size as smaller grains occupy the pore spaces
between larger grains.
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Packing Models
An attempt to determine the approx. Limits of
porosity values, Slichter and, later, Graton
& Fraser computed porosities for various
packing arrangements and given as :-
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Parallel cylindrical pores
Irregular-packed spheres with different radii
Regular orthorhombic-packed
spheres
Regular cubic-packed spheres
Regular rhombohedral-packed spheres
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Estimation of porosity accounting to this model:
47,6% or 476 , 0
6
1 = =

= =
x
o
b
m b
b
p
V
V V
V
V
3 3
m
3
b
p
3
4
8
3
4
8
1

rock) by the occupied space bulk of (volume ume matrix vol - V
2 e bulk volum - V
volume pore - V
r r
r) (
x x =

'
+

'

=
=
Regular Cubic-Packed Spheres
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Estimation of porosity accounting to this model:
39,5% or 395 , 0
3 12
4
1 1
3
3
= = =

= =
r
r
V
V
V
V V
V
V
b
m
b
m b
b
p x
o
)
spheres packed - ic orthorhomb the of height - h
3
4
ume matrix vol - V
3 4 60 sin 4 2 2 e bulk volum - V
3
m
3 3
b
r
r r h r r
x =
= = =
Regular Orthorhombic-Packed Spheres
10 January 2012 DR S. K. NANDA 20
Estimation of porosity accounting to this model:
26,0% or 26 , 0
2 12
4
1 1
3
3
= = =

= =
r
r
V
V
V
V V
V
V
b
m
b
m b
b
p x
o
r r r
r
r h r r
2 2 4 on tetrahedr in the height - h
3
4
ume matrix vol - V
2 4 2 2 e bulk volum - V
2 2
3
m
3
b
= =
=
= =
x
Regular Rhombohedral-Packed Spheres
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Estimation of porosity accounting to this model:
78,5% or 785 , 0
4 2 2
2
= =

= =
x x
o
rm rn
m n r
V
V
b
p
e bulk volum - V
volume pore - V
e bulk volum in the contained cylinders of number - n m
radius pipe - r
b
p

Parallel Cylindrical
Pores
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Porosity Range
ROCK TYPE POROSITY RANGE,%
Argillaceous shale 0.54 - 1.40
Clays 6.00 - 50
Sands 6.00 - 52
Sand stones 3.50 - 29
Carbonates 0.65 - 33
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Measurement of Porosity
Well Logs
Core Analysis
In situ
Surface
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Informatics on porosity measurements
Essential property for intelligent estimate of
hydrocarbon reserves and the economic
aspect of oil and gas production.
The results of porosity measurement-by what
ever method are ,cannot exactly correspond to
in situ conditions due to:
A) Possible relaxation of pores upon release of over
burden and fluid pressure
B) The hydraulic and mechanical actions of the coring
process.
10 January 2012 DR S. K. NANDA 25
In situ techniques
Several logging tools like - Electrical, Nuclear,
Density, or Sonic methods are used to estimare
porosity.
Resolution is effective around the well bore.
Measurements need to be confirmed / calibrated
against porosities measured at surface
conditions,
The relationship developed apply only to those
surface conditions.
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Core Analysis
Following equation is used:
On a sample of generally simple geometric form, two
of the three values V
p
, V
s
and V
T
are therefore
determined.
The standard sample (plug) is cylindrical, Its cross
section measures about 4 to 12 cm
2
and its length is
varies between 2 to 5 cm.
The plugs are first washed and dried.
The measuring instruments are coupled to
microcomputers to process the results rapidly.

10 January 2012 DR S. K. NANDA 27

A. Measurement of V
T
(a) Measurement of the buoyancy exerted by
mercury on the sample immersed in it (IFP)
APPARATUS The apparatus has a frame C connected
by a rod to a float F immersed in a beaker
containing mercury.
A reference index R is Fixed to the rod. A
plate B is suspended from the plate.
(a) First measurement: the sample is
placed on plate B with a weight P1 to
bring R in,in contact with the mercury.
(b) Second measurement: the sample is
placed under the hooks of float F, and the
weight P2 is placed on plate B to bring R
in to contact with the mercury.
If Hg is the density of at measurement
temperature.
Then:
VT
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V
Method:
Without a sample using the piston,
mercury is pushed to mark, indicated on the reference valve (V).
The vernier of the pump is set at zero.
With the sample in place, the mercury is again pushed to same
mark. The vernier of the pump is read and the volume V
T
is
obtained.
The measurement is only valid if mercury does not
penetrate into the pores.
The accuracy is 0.01 cm
3
.
(b) Use of positive
displacement pump
VT
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(c) Measurement:
The foregoing methods are unsuitable if the rock
contains fissures or macro pores, because mercury
will penetrate into them.
Here a piece of cylindrical cores diameter d and
height h can be measured using sliding caliper:
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B.Measurement of V
S
a).Measurement of the buoyancy exerted on the
sample by a solvent with which it is saturated.
V
S
by immersion method
The method is most accurate but difficult
and time consuming to achieve complete
saturation. The operations are normally
standardized.
The difference between the weights of sample in air (P
air
)
and the solvent in which it is immersed (P
immersed
) gives V
S
as :
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Regardless of specific apparatus used i.e. singe cell or double
chamber, the sample is subjected to known initial pressure by
gas, which was originally at atmospheric pressure.
The pressure is then changed by varying the volume of gas in
chamber.
The variation in volume and pressure are measured by using
Boyles law.
P
1
V
1
= P
2
V
2
The equipments using single cell and double are shown in
next slide.
b).Use of compression chamber and Boyle law
10 January 2012 DR S. K. NANDA 32
1 is chamber for core
2 is constant volume chamber
3 is core
4 & 5 is pressure manometers
6 is source of gas
1 is chamber for core
2 is core
3 is volume plunger
4 is pressure guage
c)Use of compression chamber and Boyle law
Use of single cell Use of double cell
1
2
3
4,5
6 2
4
3
1
10 January 2012 DR S. K. NANDA 33
C. Determination of V
P
The pore volume can be measured directly, by
measuring the volume of air in the pores, by
weighing a liquid filling the pores, or by mercury
injection
The mercury positive displacement pump is used
for this purpose. After measuring V
T
,the value of
the sample core holder is closed and the air in the
interconnected pores is expanded. The variation
in volume and pressure are neasured using
Boyles law.
a). Measurement of air in the pores :
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b). Measurement by weighing a liquid filling the
effective pores
This liquid is often brine
c. Measurement by mercury injection
In this case the mercury should never the
interconnected pores. The value obtained
can be effectively used .
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Special Method :Fluid Summation
The method involves the analysis of a FRESH
sample containing water, oil and gas.
The distribution of these fluids is not the same
as in the reservoir. because the core has been
invaded by the mud filtrate and decomposed
when pulled out.
Still/but the sum of the volumes of these three
fluids, for a unit volume of rock, gives the
effective porosity of the sample.
The total volume is determined by mercury
displacement pump.
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(1) V
P
= V
w
+ V
O
+ V
G
(2) S
w
+ S
O
+ S
G
= 100%
Special Method :
Relation of Fluid Summation and porosity
S
w
= V
w
/ V
P
S
O
= V
o
/ V
P
S
G
= V
G
/ V
P
10 January 2012 DR S. K. NANDA 37
What is new
NMR SPECROSCOY
By measuring the proton signal strength at time zero
compared to proton signal of known standard.
In addition to bulk measurements of core porosity , it is
also useful to produce porosity images in order to map
out details fluids like kind, location, porosity changes/
variationtions, drilling mud invasion, formation anomaly
etc.
* The technique is not applicable to shaly sand stone due
to resolution problems.
Example analysis is presented / compared:
10 January 2012 DR S. K. NANDA 38
NMR SPECROSCOY
Rock Weight
Porosity
NMR
Porosity
% Error
Sand stone1
Lime stone1
Dolomite1
Dolomite2
Sand stone2
Sand stone3
22.7
13.6
16.1
12.9
20.4
18.7
22.4
13.0
16.0
13.2
19.6
17.8
-1.3
-4.4
-0.6
+2.3
3.9
4.8
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CT Scan Analysis
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Sample Radius(mm)
Capillary
pressure Avg Radius Avg cap pr.
I-5-32 1.3 1,107.69 1.66 868.97
2.9 496.55
1.5 960.00 0.0126 psi
1.1 1,309.09
1.4 1,028.57
1.2 1,200.00
2.2 654.55
total 11.6
Sf T(dyne/cm^2) 72
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Computer Assisted Petrographic
Analysis (CAP)
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Allows petrographer to make quantitative measurements of textural and
mineralogic properties
Grain size distribution, grain shape (angularity), grain contact statistics,
grain perimeter/porosity perimeter measurements
Porosity type/size/and distribution; framework grain and authigenic phase
mineralogy and distribution
500Q
500Q
10 January 2012 DR S. K. NANDA 43
Brazos, Mustang Island, Matagorda Island
Controlling Factors Controlling Factors::
Sand texture, composition Sand texture, composition
Compaction Compaction - - VES history VES history
Burial history Burial history - - temperature, time temperature, time
Cementation Cementation - - fluid flow history fluid flow history
Secondary porosity Secondary porosity
Controlling Factors Controlling Factors::
Sand texture, composition Sand texture, composition
Compaction Compaction - - VES history VES history
Burial history Burial history - - temperature, time temperature, time
Cementation Cementation - - fluid flow history fluid flow history
Secondary porosity Secondary porosity
250 Q
Porosity Porosity- -Depth Trends Depth Trends - - Porosity Porosity- -Depth Trends Depth Trends - -
Middle Miocene Sandstones
Offshore Texas Shelf - Corsair Trend
Porosity (% BV)
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
D
e
p
t
h

(
f
e
e
t
)
0
5000
10000
15000
20000
Allie 1984; Taylor 1987, 1998
Reservoir Quality Prediction Reservoir Quality Prediction
for Sandstones for Sandstones
Reservoir Quality Prediction Reservoir Quality Prediction
for Sandstones for Sandstones
10 January 2012 DR S. K. NANDA 44
Tc+Mt
Tc-Mt
10,136 ft
10,139 ft
Mt slumped
Tc ( to SMD?
Mt > Tc
Mt slumped
CORE 1,
SAND 571
3
2
10,133 ft
10,136 ft
Tc
Mt
Tc-Tb
Mt
Tc? Slumped
3
2
3
Tc-Td
>> Tb
& Mt
3
10,139 ft
10,142 ft
Tb
Tc - Tb
Mt
Mt
MSD (2a.)
Tc
Mt
1 b
2
3
2
13,673.00 ft
13,676.00 ft
Ta-S?
S-Ta?
13,667.00 ft
13,670.00 ft
MT?
Ta
13,670.00 ft
13,673.00 ft
Ta
MT?
more
abundant
mud
intraclast
content
Ta
CORE 6,
SAND 767
SE, 2002
1000 Q
1000 Q
Tc
S
10 January 2012 DR S. K. NANDA 45
PROBLEM
The grain volume of rock sample of 1.5 dia and 5.6 cm
length was found to be 56.24 cc and bulk volume of the
sample using mercury displacement method was
measured 73.80 cc. Calculate the pore volume and
porosity of the sample.
If dry weight of the sample is149.88 gms, find the grain
density.
SOLUTION
*Pore volume = Bulk volume-Grain volume
=73.80 56.24=17,56 cc
*Porosity,% =(Pore volume/Grain volume) x 100
=(17.56/73.80)X100 = 23.79%
*Grain density=Dry weight of sample/Grain volume
= 149.88/56.24 = 2.665 gms/cc
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