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The Digestive System The Endocrine System Respiratory System Skeletal/Muscular System Sensory System Nervous System Reproductive System Cardiovascular/Lymphatic The Urinary System
THE KIDNEY
Has a covering known as a CAPSULE Tissue known as the CORTEX Has central RENAL PYRAMIDS LESSER CALYCES run between the pyramids Several of these form GREATER CALYCES which unite to form the PELVIS OF THE KIDNEY The RENAL ARTERY supplies fresh blood and the RENAL VEIN removes waste products Concave area known as the HILUS
THE URETERS
Two of, approx 35-30 cm long. They convey urine from the urinary bladder by means of PERISTALSIS to the urinary bladder Outer FIBROUS outer layer Middle MUSCULAR layer Inner lining of MUCOUS MEMBRANE Peristaltic waves occur every 10 seconds sending little spurts of urine into the bladder
THE URETHRA
Canal extending from the neck of the urinary bladder to the exterior. Male 19-20 cms (associated with the reproductive system) Female 3-4 cms Flow guarded by an INTERNAL SPHINCTER VESICAE (under involuntary control) and by an EXTERNAL SPHINCTER URETHRAE (under the control of the will)
THE BLOOD
Sticky red fluid composed of 2 parts PLASMA made up of mineral salts; proteins; fats; waste products; antibodies; carbon dioxide BLOOD CELLS red blood cells containing haemoglobin attracting oxygen White blood cells larger more numerous who fight infection PLATELETS who move to area of trauma/infection and heal/destroy same
THE HEART
Divided in 2 by the CARDIAC SEPTUM and quartered by the RIGHT and LEFT ATRIOVENTRICULAR VALVES. Creates 4 chambers The RIGHT ATRIUM - the LEFT ATRIUM The RIGHT VENTRICLE - the LEFT VENTRICLE The heart has 3 layers of tissue the PERICARDIUM, the MYOCARDIUM and the ENDOCARDIUM
THE SPLEEN
Partly shaped by lymphatic tissue. Slightly oval and is 12 cms long. Vessels enter and leave at the HILIUM. Enclosed in a fibroelastic capsule known as a TRABECULAE. Structures entering and leaving are the SPLENIC ARTERY, the SPLENIC VEIN, LYMPH VESSELS and NERVES
THE FOREBRAIN
Large complicated organ which lies in the CEREBRAL CAVITY. Divides early in its development into the FOREBRAIN, the MIDBRAIN and the HINDBRAIN FOREBRAIN known as the CEREBRUM divided into RIGHT AND LEFT HEMISPHERES by the LONGITUDINAL CEREBRAL FISSURE - controls opposite sides of the body. Grey matter on surface and white matter in the centre LOBES of the cerebrum named for the bones that cover them. FRONTAL LOBE, PARIETAL LOBE, TEMPORAL LOBE and OCCIPITAL LOBE Concerned with consciousness, reasoning, memory, thought and senses
THE MIDBRAIN
PONS VAROLII acts as a bridge between both halves of the CEREBELLUM. Relays nervous impulses to and from the brain and body periphery MEDULLA OBLONGATA is joined to the pons varolli above and the spinal cord below. Contains cardiac and respirtory centres which control heart rate and respiration MIDBRAIN lies between forebrain and hindbrain and consists of 2 stalk-like bands of white matter conveying impulses to and from the brain and spinal cord
THE HINDBRAIN
The CEREBELLUM. This has 2 hemispheres with grey matter on the outside and white matter at the centre. Concerned with balance, muscle co-ordination and muscle tone. Disease of the cerebellum results in loss of muscle power and the ability to co-ordinate muscle movement
THE MENINGES
The brain and spinal cord are covered by 3 layers of tissue known as the MENINGES. The DURA MATER is a rough fibrous membrane attached to the inner surface of the skull The ARACHNOID MATER is a delicate membrane lying below the dura mater The PIA MATER is a delicate membrane covering the actual surface of the brain. Carries blood supply to the underlying brain tissue.
CEREBROSPINAL FLUID
A clear watery fluid contained in the 4 VENTRICLES or spaces within the brain and which surrounds the spinal cord This fluid protects the brain and spinal cord and it acts as a cushion between delicate nerve tissue and the bony walls of the cranium in which these structures lie. Nourishes the brain and clears away waste products and toxic substances
BONES STRUCTURE
Bone formation is known as OSSIFICATION and it is the hardest tissue in the body. Bones are covered by PERIOSTEUM. There are 2 types COMPACT and CANCELLOUS Compact bone has a central HAVERSIAN CANAL surrounded by concentric circles of LAMELLAE. Cancellous bone has larger irregular Haversian Canals and fewer lamellae. Red bone marrow is found in cancellous bone.
BONES - TYPES
LONG bones have a DIAPHYSIS (shaft) which is composed of compact bone and a central MEDULLARY CANAL where yellow bone marrow is found. and 2 EPIPHYSES at each end
IRREGULAR, FLAT and SESAMOID bones have a thin covering of compact bone with cancellous bone inside.
THE UTERUS
Hollow, muscular, pear-shaped organ which has 3 layers of tissue the PERIMETRIUM, the MYOMETRIUM and the ENDOMETRIUM. The dome-shaped area at the superior aspect is known as the FUNDUS OF THE UTERUS, the main area is known as the BODY OF THE UTERUS and the inferior aspect is the CERVIX The uterus provides a safe and secure place for a fertilised ovum to mature during a 40-week gestation period.
THE OVARIES
Two ovaries lying in a shallow FOSSA or depression in the pelvic cavity Each ovary is attached to the uterus by means of an OVARIAN LIGAMENT Each ovary contains OVARIAN FOLLICLES which rupture at ovulation and release an ovum on alternate months.
TESTES/SCROTUM
The testes are the male sex glands or GONADS. They are suspended in a pigmented sac known as the SCROTUM. Each testis contains SEMINIFEROUS TUBULES which produce millions of SPERMATOZOA. Each testis has approx 200-300 lobules between which are groups of interstitial cells which secrete testosterone.
It is through the spermatic cord that the VAS DEFERENS runs and through which spermatozoa are pushed during ejaculation
THE URETHRA
In men the urethra is approximately 19-20 cms and is a common pathway for both semen and urine. It originates at the urethral orifice in the bladder and is known as the PROSTATIC URETHRA when surrounded by this gland. The urethra has 2 sphincters - The INTERNAL SPHINCTER VESICAE and the EXTERNAL SPHINCTER URETHRAE
THE PENIS
Has a ROOT and a BODY. The root lies in the PERINEUM, the body surrounds the urethra. Formed by 2 elongated masses of erectile tissue and involuntary muscle the penis also has a rich blood supply. It has 2 lateral columns which are called CORPORA CAVERNOSA with a central column called CORPUS SPONGIOSUM. Triangular structure at the tip is known as the GLANS PENIS which is surround by a double layer of skin called the PREPUCE or foreskin
EPIDIDYMIS
An epididymis is found lying on top of each testis. Spermatozoa are manufactured in the testis and stored in the epididymis If ejaculation does not take place then the spermatozoa are absorbed back into the body
The Ear
The Skin
The Nose
THE EYE
Has 3 layers The SCLERA which runs on anteriorly to become the CORNEA The CHOROID which runs on anteriorly to become the CILIARY BODY, IRIS and PUPIL The RETINA which is made up of light sensitive cells called RODS AND CONES
THE EYE 2
The Ciliary Body splits into the SUSPENSORY LIGAMENTS which are attached to the LENS and the thickness and shape of the lens are altered depending on the distance an object is from the eye The body also forms the IRIS which is joined superiorly and inferiorly by the PUPIL which change shape depending on the light reflected from an object The eyeball shape is maintained by VITREOUS HUMOUR and the front of the eye by AQUEOUS HUMOUR held in the ANTERIOR and POSTERIOR chambers created by the pupil
THE NOSE
Divided in 2 by the NASAL SEPTUM creating NARES
THE NOSE2
Has an OLFACTORY function to identify smell Divided into 2 NARES by the NASAL SEPTUM Bounded superiorly by the ETHMOID and FRONTAL bones Bounded inferiorly by the HARD PALATE 3 areas the INFERIOR NASAL CONCHA, the MIDDLE NASAL CONCHA and the SUPERIOR NASAL CONCHA OLFACTORY FIBRES in the Superior Nasal Concha when stimulated pass vibrations on to
THE SKIN
Consists of 3 layers
The EPIDERMIS The DERMIS (layer of COLLAGEN FIBRES) The SUBCUTANEOUS LAYER
THE EPIDERMIS
The topmost layer of the skin which reproduces itself every 26-30 days. Covered with ridges known as PAPILLAE. Two openings break through the Epidermis a SWEAT GLAND, to allow for regulation of body temperature and a HAIR FOLLICLE
THE DERMIS
Contains several structures SWEAT GLANDS HAIR FOLLICLES (hair described as a BULB, ROOT and SHAFT ARRECTORES PILORUM muscles SEBACEOUS GLANDS NERVE ENDINGS BLOOD VESSELS
COLLAGEN FIBRES
A network of fibres which help to maintain the skin elasticity
SUBCUTANEOUS LAYER
Layer of tissue between the collagen fibres and underlying structures.
THE EAR
Can be described in 3 ways
HORMONES
A substance produced in one gland that affects the activity of another Carried in the blood Glands referred to as ductless glands because secretions are passed directly into the blood
THE HYPOTHALAMUS
Situated between and below the 2 CEREBRAL HEMISPHERES Controls the AUTONOMIC SYSTEM This monitors the bodys external and internal reactions to STIMULAE, controls emotions, body temperature and thirst
THYMUS GLAND
Situated in the chest area, close to the STERNUM LYMPHOCYTES pass through this gland in a younger person and go on to develop antibody properties
ADRENAL GLANDS
2 glands, one situated on the upper pole of each kidney They have an outer CORTEX and an inner MEDULLA They are concerned with the production of the hormones ADRENALIN and NORADRENALINE (fight or flight hormone and the peacemaker hormone)
ISLETS OF LANGERHANS
Situated in the PANCREAS Found in clusters irregularly distributed throughout the pancreas Secretions pass directly into the pancreatic veins to circulate throughout the body Concerned with production of INSULIN and GLUCAGON to regulate blood sugar
OVARIES
Main female sex gland, GONAD 2 of lying in a shallow FOSSA or depression in the pelvic cavity. Concerned with the production of OESTROGEN which affects the number of OVA produced
TESTES
Male sex gland, GONAD suspended within a pigmented sac the SCROTUM Concerned with the production of TESTOSTERONE which determines the amount and health of SPERMATOZOA produced
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RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Nose Larynx Trachea Right/Left Bronchi Bronchioles Lungs Muscles of Respiration
THE TRACHEA
The main airway of the body Composed of 16-20 rings of incomplete cartilage because of posterior attachment to the OESOPHAGUS Divides at the level of the 5th thoracic vertebra to form the RIGHT and LEFT BRONCHUS. Further sub-division arrives at smaller BRONCHIOLES which terminate in an ALVEOLUS where the exchange of gases take place
THE LUNGS
2 of in the thoracic cavity. Area between known as the MEDIASTINUM Lung tissue is spongy and elastic and air is required to be heated and moist as it reaches the delicate tissue. Lungs covered by a double layer of tissue, the PLEURA, giving rise to a potential space
MUSCLES OF RESPIRATION
The INTERCOSTAL muscles are arranged in INTERNAL and EXTERNAL layers The DIAPHRAGM is a dome-shaped muscle separating the THORACIC and ABDOMINAL cavities Contraction of these muscles causes the rib cage to move up and out increasing thoracic capacity. the STERNOCLEIDOMASTOID muscle is also used in forced breathing
THE LARYNX
Formed by 3 different cartilages which fuse in young boys at puberty to form the LARYNGEAL PROMINENCE CRICOID CARTILAGE ARYTENOID CARTILAGE HYOID CARTILAGE Contains the VOCAL CORDS, attached to the Arytenoid Cartilage contraction causes the cords to pull together and air forced over these causes sound to be produced
THE NOSE
Divided in 2 by the NASAL SEPTUM creating NARES
The Mouth The Pharynx The Oesophagus The Stomach The Small Intestines The Large Intestines
THE STOMACH
J-shaped Entrance guarded by the CARDIAC ORIFICE Lining arranged in folds known as ROUGAE Contains concentrated HYDROCHLORIC ACID Exit through the PYLORUS guarded by the PYLORIC SPHINCTER preventing reflux
THE OESOPHAGUS
Main food channel Consists of 16-20 rings of cartilage Bolus of food is moved through the Oesophagus by means of PERISTALSIS
THE PHARYNX
Can be described in 3 ways
The Mouth
Teeth 4 types CANINES, INCISORS, MOLARS and PRE-MOLARS Tongue covered by PAPILLAE, can distinguish 4 tastes SWEET, SALT, BITTER, SOUR Salivary Glands SUBLINGUAL SUBMANDIBULAR PAROTID All of the above mould the food into a BOLUS and begins the Mechanical/Chemical Breakdown of food