INTELLIGENCE, ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND OTHER FORMS OF INTELLIGENCE

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

Definition of intelligence History of Intelligence Theories of Intelligence Intelligence and IQ Research Emotional Intelligence Definition What is Emotion? Origins of the Concept Essential concept Core Elements Artificial Intelligence Definition History AI Applications Research References

Definition of Intelligence
y

Viewed narrowly, there seem to be almost as many definitions of intelligence as there were experts asked to define it. R. J. Sternberg Despite a long history of research and debate, there is still no standard definition of intelligence. Although there is no single standard definition, if one surveys the many definitions that have been

proposed, strong similarities between many of the definitions quickly become obvious.

Psychologist definitions
This section contains definitions from psychologists.
y

Binet (1916) defined it as the capacity to judge well, to reason well, and to comprehend well Thorndike (1921) defined it as the power of good responses from the point of view of truth or fact Spearman (1923) defined it as a general ability involving mainly the ability to see relations and correlates

Wechlser (1939) defined it as the global capacity of an individual to act purposefully, think rationally, and deal effectively with the environment Piaget (1972) defined it as referring to the superior forms of organization or equilibrium of cognitive structuring used for adaptation to the to the physical and social environment Sternberg (1985) defined it as the mental capacity to automatize information processing and to emit contextually appropriate behavior in response to novelty

Collective definitions
In this section I will present definitions that have been proposed by groups or organizations. 1. The ability to use memory, knowledge, experience, understanding, reasoning, imagination and judgment in order to solve problems and adapt to new situations. All Words Dictionary, 2006 2. The capacity to acquire and apply knowledge. The American Heritage Dictionary, fourth edition, 2000

4. The ability to learn, understand and make judgments or have opinions that are based on reason Cambridge Advance Learners Dictionary, 2006 5. ability to adapt effectively to the environment, either by making a change in oneself or by changing the environment or finding a new one intelligence is not a single mental process, but rather a combination of many mental processes directed toward effective adaptation to the environment. Encyclopedia Britannica, 2006

Is a single definition possible?

y

In matters of definition, it is difficult to argue that there is an objective sense in which one definition could be considered to be the correct one. Nevertheless, some definitions are clearly more concise, precise and general than others. Furthermore, it is clear that many of the definitions listed above are strongly related to each other and share many common features. If we scan through the definitions pulling out commonly occurring features we find that intelligence is:

A property that an individual agent has as it interacts with its environment or environments. Is related to the agents ability to succeed or profit with respect to some goal or objective. Depends on how able the agent is to adapt to different objectives and environments.

Putting these key attributes together produces the informal definition of intelligence:

Intelligence measures an agents ability to achieve goals in a wide range of environments. S. Legg and M. Hutter

History of Intelligence
y

Historically two scientists with entirely different agendas played seminal roles in the study and measurement of mental skills. The contributions of Sir Francis Galton and Alfred Binet set the stage for later attempts to measure intelligence and discover its causes.

Sir Francis Galton

y

Hereditary Genius- eminence and genius seemed to occur within certain families. Eminent people had inherited mental constitutions that made them more fit for thinking than their less successful counterparts. Biological basis for eminence - people who were more socially and occupationally successful would also perform better on a variety of laboratory tasks thought to measure the efficiency of the nervous system.

He developed measures of reaction speed, hand strength, and sensory acuity. He even measured the size of peoples skull, believing that skull size reflected brain volume and hence intelligence. His measure of nervous-system efficiency proved unrelated to socially relevant measure of mental ability, such as academic and occupational success. Nonetheless, Galtons work created an interest in the measurement of mental abilities, setting the stage for the pioneering work of Alfred Binet.

Alfred Binets Mental Tests

y

During the early 1900s, the French government asked psychologist Alfred Binet to help decide which students were mostly likely to experience difficulty in schools. Faced with this task, Binet and his colleague Theodore Simon began developing a number of questions that focused on things that had not been taught in school such as attention, memory and problem-solving skills. He quickly realized that some children were able to answer more advanced questions that older children were generally able to answer, while other children of the same age were only able to answer questions that younger children could typically answer.

Based on this observation, Binet suggested the concept of a mental age, or a measure of intelligence based on the average abilities of children of a certain age group. This first intelligence test, referred to today as the Binet-Simon Scale, became the basis for the intelligence tests still in use today. However, Binet himself did not believe that his psychometric instruments could be used to measure a single, permanent and inborn level of intelligence.

Binet stressed the limitations of the test, suggesting that intelligence is far too broad a concept to quantify with a single number. Instead, he insisted that intelligence is influenced by a number of factors, changes over time and can only be compared among children with similar backgrounds.

The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test Stanfordy

Stanford University psychologist Lewis Terman took Binet's original test and standardized it using a sample of American participants. This adapted test, first published in 1916, was called the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale and soon became the standard intelligence test used in the U.S. The Stanford-Binet intelligence test used a single number, known as the intelligence quotient (or IQ), to represent an individual's score on the test.

This score was calculated by dividing the test taker's mental age by their chronological age, and then multiplying this number by 100. The Stanford-Binet remains a popular assessment tool today, despite going through a number of revisions over the years since its inception. Currently, the test is in its fifth edition, which is called the StanfordBinet 5.

To help protect your privacy, PowerPoint prevented this external picture from being automatically downloaded. To download and display this picture, click Options in the Message Bar, and then click Enable external content.

Binet Scale of Human Intelligence IQ Score Over 140 120 - 139 110 - 119 90 - 109 80 - 89 70 - 79 50 - 69 20 - 49 Below 20 Original Name Genius or Near-Genius Very Superior Superior Average or Normal Dull Borderline Deficiency Moron Imbecile Idiot Dull Normal Mild Moderate Severe Profound Modern Term

Intelligence Testing During World War I

y

At the outset of World War I, U.S. Army officials were faced with the monumental task of screening an enormous number of army recruits. In 1917 Robert Yerkes developed two tests known as the Army Alpha and Beta tests. The Army Alpha was designed as a written test, while the Army Beta was administered orally in cases where recruits were unable to read.

At the end of WWI, the tests remained in use in a wide variety of situations outside of the military with individuals of all ages, backgrounds and nationalities.

The Wechsler Intelligence Scales

y

The next development in the history of intelligence testing was the creation of a new measurement instrument by American psychologist David Wechsler. Intelligence involved a number of different mental abilities. "the global capacity of a person to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with his environment".

Dissatisfied with the limitations of the StanfordBinet, he published his new intelligence test known as the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) in 1955. Wechsler also developed two different tests specifically for use with children: the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) and the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI). The current version of the test is the WAIS-IV, which was released in 2008

Theories of Intelligence
1. Howard Gardner - Theory of Multiple Intelligences Howard Gardner viewed intelligence as "the capacity to solve problems or to fashion products that are valued in one or more cultural settings In his consideration of intelligence, psychologist Howard Gardner has taken a very different approach from traditional thinking about the topic. Gardner argues that rather than asking how smart are you we should be asking a different question: how are you smart?

In answering the latter question, Gardner has developed a theory of Multiple Intelligences which comprises of eight types of intelligences: Linguistic Intelligence Logical-Mathematical Intelligence Spatial Intelligence Musical Intelligence Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence Interpersonal Intelligence Intrapersonal Intelligence Naturalist Intelligence

o o o o o o o o

2. Robert Sternbergs Triarchic Theory of Human Intelligence

y

Sternberg holds that conventional measures of intelligence, such as IQ tests, fail to identify the high abilities many individuals possess. Sternberg's Triarchic Theory of Human Intelligence includes three facets: Analytical Intelligence (componential) Creative Intelligence (experiential) Practical Intelligence (contextual)

y o o o

3. Charles E. Spearman - factor analytic approach

y

Charles Spearman was one of the earliest psychologists to propose a factor analytic approach to intelligence testing. His theory stated that there was one general factor (g) and one or more specific factors (s) that accounted for individuals' performance on intelligence tests. Spearman conceptualized the g factor as general mental energy. This factor is involved in deductive reasoning and is linked to the "skill, speed, intensity, and extent of intellectual output."

General mental ability represented the 'inventive' aspect to mental ability rather than the 'reproductive' aspect. The cognitive abilities associated with general mental ability might include being able to describe how two concepts are related or being able to find a second idea that is related to one that has already been proposed. Tests with high g loading are complex and include tasks that involve reasoning and hypothesis testing.

Tests with low g loadings are less complex and include tasks that involve recognition, recall, and speed.

4. Cross-Battery Assessment (Cattell-HornCross(Cattell-HornCarroll) Model

y

Distinguished between two types of intelligence, that is fluid intelligence and crystallized intelligence. Fluid intelligence refers to the ability to understand and reason with nonverbal. Fluid intelligence is thought to gradually increase during childhood and it peaks in adolescence. After peaking, fluid intelligence is thought to gradually decrease over the rest of an individual's life due to the degeneration of physiological brain structures.

y y

Crystallized intelligence refers to the acquired skills and knowledge that an individual possess. This type of intelligence involves over learned and well established cognitive functions and is related to mental products and achievements. Examples of tasks that tap into crystallized intelligence might include vocabulary and general information. Crystallized intelligence is strongly influenced by formal and informal education and as a result, is thought to increase at least until middle adulthood.

After this original two-factor conceptualization of intelligence, Cattell, Horn, and Carroll proposed nine different broad classifications of intelligence and they developed the Cattell-Horn-Carroll Theory of Cognitive Abilities. The nine different classifications of intelligence include: Fluid Intelligence Crystallized Intelligence Visual Processing Auditory Processing Short-Term Memory

y y y y y

y y y y

Long-Term Storage and Retrieval Processing Speed Decision Speed Quantitative Knowledge

Intelligence and IQ
y

IQ and Intelligence are often considered one and the same when it comes to determining the skill of a person. Actually there is some difference between the two. IQ stands for intelligence quotient and it is a specific term. On the other hand intelligence is a broad term.

When you determine intelligence it is not measured by ratio. On the other hand IQ is characterized by ratio. Intelligence involves various tests whereas IQ involves the calculation of the score based on these tests. It can thus be said that the calculation of IQ score certainly depends on the performance in the intelligence tests.

y y

You would use a formula to calculate the IQ whereas no such formula is needed to test ones intelligence. On the other hand intelligence tests can be conducted in types such as numerical, musical, linguistic, interpersonal, verbal, reasoning, fluency and the like. On the contrary intelligence quotient or IQ does not boast such types. However it is very important to note that IQ and intelligence are certainly interconnected in the sense that the IQ is conducted to determine the intelligence of an individual.

y y

A distributed brain network for human intelligence

y

Jung and Haier reviewed 37 structural and functional neuroimaging studies published between 1988 and 2007. Based on the commonalities found in their analysis, they proposed the Parieto-Frontal Integration Theory (PFIT), identifying several brain areas distributed across the brain. These P-FIT regions support distinguishable information processing stages

Occipital and temporal areas process sensory information in the first processing stage: the extrastriate cortex (Brodmann areas - BAs - 18 and 19) and the fusiform gyrus (BA 37), involved with recognition, imagery and elaboration of visual inputs, as well as Wernicke's area (BA 22) for analysis and elaboration of syntax of auditory information. Integration and abstraction of the sensory information by parietal BAs 39 (angular gyrus), 40 (supramarginal gyrus), and 7 (superior parietal lobule) correspond to the second processing stage.

The parietal areas interact with the frontal lobes in the third processing stage and this interaction underlies problem solving, evaluation, and hypothesis testing. Frontal BAs 6, 9, 10, 45, 46, and 47 are underscored by the model. The anterior cingulate (BA 32) is implicated for response selection and inhibition of alternative responses, once the best solution is determined in the previous stage.

However, Jung and Haier suggest that not all these areas are equally necessary in all individuals for intelligence. Discrete brain regions of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (BAs 9, 45, 46, and 47) and the parietal cortex (BAs 7 and 40) could be considered most important for human intelligence.

Emotional Intelligence

Definition
y Researchers have been defining EI differently depending on the field of their study and the depth of their research. y EI is generally defined as an individuals ability to accurately perceive reality so that to understand and regulate their own emotional responses as well as adapt and respond to others (Mayer, Salovey, 1997). y Later, Mayer and Salovey defined EI more specifically as the ability to perceive emotions, to access and generate emotions to assist thought, to understand emotions and emotional knowledge, and to reflectively regulate emotions to promote emotional and intellectual growth .

The most recent definition that attempts to cover the whole construct of EI describes it as the ability, capacity, skill, or potential to feel, use, communicate, recognize, remember, describe, identify, learn from, manage, understand and explain emotions (Hein, 2007). Based on the definitions mentioned above, EI can be understood as a persons ability to:

1. Be self-aware 2. Detect emotions in others 3. Manage emotional cues and information

What is Emotion?
y

The word emotion comes from the Latin word emoveo, which means "to move from." According to Webster's 1828 Dictionary, emotion is "a moving of the mind or soul". Historically, the word emotion has been associated with a strong sense of feelings or drama.

Today, however, with the thorough research in psychology, sociology, and anthropology, the range of emotions that constitutes personality is considered very broad and cannot be ignored and written off the books as a matter of irrational expression. There are dozens of emotions, including anger , enthusiasm, envy, fear, frustration, embarrassment, disgust, happiness, hate, jealousy, joy, love, surprise, and sadness.

Many researchers have agreed on six essentially universal emotions anger, fear, sadness, happiness, disgust, and surprise with most other emotions included within these six categories A more general way to classify emotions is by dividing them into positive and negative ones.

The basic premise of this emotions diagram is that no matter what emotion one experiences, it can be classified and labeled. The essence of being emotionally intelligent for an individual is to successfully recognize where s/he and others stand on this emotions continuum and manage emotions in a constructive way to boost motivation, increase productivity, arrive at better decisions, and satisfy emotional needs.

Origins of the Concept

y

The earliest research on emotional intelligence is attributed to Charles Darwins work called The Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals. Darwin argued that emotional expression is essential for proper adaptation of species. Darwin believed that emotions developed over time to help people survive. According to him, emotions are useful because they motivate people to engage in actions that are important for survival.

Evolutionary psychologists also suggest that every emotion serves some useful purpose that eventually comes down to the matter of survival. In 1983, Howard Gardner's -Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences introduced the idea of multiple intelligences which included Interpersonal intelligence and Intrapersonal intelligence.

The first use of the term "Emotional Intelligence" is attributed to Wayne Payne's doctoral thesis, A Study of Emotion: Developing Emotional Intelligence published in 1985. The publication of Daniel Goleman's best seller Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More Than IQ made the term widely popularized. In his bestseller, Goleman argued that in today's rapidly evolving world a person's EI or EQ is the most important predicator of success.

Later, Goleman published a follow-up book called Working with Emotional Intelligence, that focuses on how EI factors affect success in the workplace. More and more researchers in the EI related areas of study confirm that EI helps predict personal and professional success.

Major reasons that explain why EI is an essential concept

y y y y y

Motivation and Creativity Job Performance Decision Making Leadership Personal Growth

Core Elements
y

Daniel Goleman suggested five elements that are at the core of emotional intelligence. These elements constitute the abilities that characterize and distinguish emotionally intelligent person.

1. Self-Awareness 2. Self-Regulation 3. Motivation 4. Empathy 5. Social Skills

Artificial Intelligence

Definition
y

Artificial intelligence (AI) is the intelligence of machines and the branch of computer science that aims to create it. AI textbooks define the field as "the study and design of intelligent agents" where an intelligent agent is a system that perceives its environment and takes actions that maximize its chances of success. John McCarthy, who coined the term in 1956, defines it as "the science and engineering of making intelligent machines."

The field was founded on the claim that a central property of humans, intelligence can be so precisely described that it can be simulated by a machine. This raises philosophical issues about the nature of the mind and the ethics of creating artificial beings, issues which have been addressed by myth, fiction and philosophy since antiquity. Artificial intelligence has been the subject of optimism , but has also suffered setbacks and, today, has become an essential part of the technology industry.

History
y

Thinking machines and artificial beings appear in Greek myths. Human likenesses believed to have intelligence were built in every major civilization. By the 19th and 20th centuries, artificial beings had become a common feature in fiction.

y Mechanical or formal" reasoning has been developed by philosophers and mathematicians since antiquity. y The study of logic led directly to the invention of the programmable digital electronic computer, based on the work of mathematician Alan Turing and others. y Turing's theory of computation suggested that a machine, by shuffling symbols as simple as "0" and "1", could simulate any conceivable act of mathematical deduction. y This, along with concurrent discoveries in neurology, information theory and cybernetics, inspired a small group of researchers to begin to seriously consider the possibility of building an electronic brain

y The field of AI research was founded at a conference on the campus of Dartmouth College in the summer of 1956. y The attendees, including John McCarthy, Marvin Minsky,Allen Newell and Herbert Simon, became the leaders of AI research for many decades. y They and their students wrote programs that were, to most people, simply astonishing. y By the middle of the 1960s, research in the U.S. was heavily funded by the Department of Defense and laboratories had been established around the world.

AI's founders were profoundly optimistic about the future of the new field: Herbert Simon predicted that "machines will be capable, within twenty years, of doing any work a man can do" Marvin Minsky agreed, writing that "within a generation ... the problem of creating 'artificial intelligence' will substantially be solved". In 1974, in response to the criticism both the U.S. and British governments cut off all undirected exploratory research in AI.

The next few years, when funding for projects was hard to find, would later be called the "AI winter". In the early 1980s, AI research was revived by the commercial success of expert systems, a form of AI program that simulated the knowledge and analytical skills of one or more human experts. By 1985 the market for AI had reached over a billion dollars

In the 1990s and early 21st century, AI achieved its greatest successes, although somewhat behind the scenes. Artificial intelligence is used for logistics, data mining, medical diagnosis and many other areas throughout the technology industry The success was due to several factors: The increasing computational power of computers

y o

A greater emphasis on solving specific sub problems. The creation of new ties between AI and other fields working on similar problems. And a new commitment by researchers to solid mathematical methods and rigorous scientific standards.

o On 11 May 1997, Deep Blue became the first computer chess-playing system to beat a reigning world chess champion, Garry Kasparov. o In 2005, a Stanford robot won the DARPA Grand Challenge by driving autonomously for 131 miles along an unrehearsed desert trail. o In February 2011, in a quiz show exhibition match, IBM's question answering system,Watson, defeated the two greatest champions, Brad Rutter and Ken Jennings, by a significant margin.

AI Applications
y

AI Technology can be applied to provide solutions for a wide range of commercial and scientific needs. These needs or applications can be categorized as follows:

a. Simple b. Complex c .Very Complex

Research
1.

On the Hunt for Universal Intelligence - Science Daily (Jan. 27, 2011) How do you use a scientific method to measure the intelligence of a human being, an animal, a machine or an extra-terrestrial? Spanish and Australian researchers have taken a first step towards this by presenting the foundations to be used as a basis for this method in the journal Artificial Intelligence, and have also put forward a new intelligence test.

It can be applied to any subject -- whether biological or not -- at any point in its development (child or adult, for example), for any system now or in the future, and with any level of intelligence or speed," points out HernndezOrallo. Until now there has not been any way of checking whether current systems are more intelligent than the ones in use 20 years ago, "but the existence of tests with these characteristics may make it possible to systematically evaluate the progress of this discipline," says HernndezOrallo.

And what is even "more important" is that there were no theories or tools to evaluate and compare future intelligent systems that could demonstrate intelligence greater than human intelligence. "The universal and unified evaluation of intelligence, be it human, non-human animal, artificial or extraterrestrial, has not been approached from a scientific viewpoint before, and this is a first step," the researcher concludes.

References
Internet sources y http://pareonline.net/getvn.asp?v=4&n=4 y http://whatisartificialintelligence.com/10/a-definition-ofartificial-intelligence/ y http://www.apa.org/divisions/div10/articles/sternberg.ht ml y http://psychology.about.com/od/personalitydevelopment /a/emotionalintell_2.htm y http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3181994/ y http://psychology.about.com/od/psychologicaltesting/a/in t-history.htm

y y y y y

http://wilderdom.com/personality/L1-5KeyPlayers.html http://www.iqcomparisonsite.com/IQBasics.aspx http://www.learningandteaching.info/learning/intelligence .htm http://wilderdom.com/intelligence/IQWhatScoresMean. html http://factoidz.com/gender-difference-and-intelligence-isthere-any-correlation/

Books, journals, articles

y

Applicability Analysis of the Emotional Intelligence Theory - Maiya Assanova Michael McGuire Intelligence: a brief history By Anna T. Cianciolo, Robert J. Sternberg Understanding Psychology Robert S. Feldman Human intelligence and brain networks- Roberto Colom, Sherif Karama, Rex E. Jung, Richard J. Haier

Artificial Intelligence A Modern Approach Stuart J. Russell and Peter Norvig A Collection of Denitions of Intelligence Shane Legg Understanding Intelligence By Rolf Pfeifer, Christian Scheier

THANK YOU