Lecture 1

Introduction (Chapter 1) & Concept (Chapter 3) & Classful Address (Chapter 4)

Qiang Lin, Ph.D

Dept. of ECE, GMU, Dr. Qiang Lin

TCOM 509 - 2012

Local Area Network (LAN)

A computer network covering a small physical area, like a home, office, or small group of buildings, such as a school, or an airport

Dept. of ECE, GMU, Dr. Qiang Lin

TCOM 509 - 2012

Wide Area Network (WAN)

A computer network that covers a broad area, i.e., any network whose communications links cross metropolitan, regional, or national boundaries

Dept. of ECE, GMU, Dr. Qiang Lin

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Wide Area Network (WAN) (cont)

A computer network that covers a broad area, i.e., any network whose communications links cross metropolitan, regional, or national boundaries

Dept. of ECE, GMU, Dr. Qiang Lin

TCOM 509 - 2012

Internetworking (Internet) network of networks

Dept. of ECE, GMU, Dr. Qiang Lin

TCOM 509 - 2012

Internetworking (Internet) definitions

Internet is a global computer network

Consisting of a worldwide network of computer networks Using TCP/IP network protocols to facilitate data transmission and exchange

Often confused with World Wide Web, Internet refers to:

Combined collection of academic, commercial, and government networks connected over international telecommunication backbones Routed using IP addressing

Dept. of ECE, GMU, Dr. Qiang Lin

TCOM 509 - 2012

Two fundamental observations

No single network hardware technology can satisfy all constraints

Economic and technical High speed and inexpensive LANs only cover short distances WANs that span long distances cannot supply local communications cheaply

Users desire universal interconnection

Users would like to communicate between any two points, not constrained by boundaries of physical networks

Dept. of ECE, GMU, Dr. Qiang Lin

TCOM 509 - 2012

Internetworking (Internet) goals

Based on TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) suite to establish the basis to:
Build a unified, cooperative interconnection of networks Supports a universal communication service Within each network, computers will use underlying technology-dependent communication facilities New software, inserted between technology-dependent communication mechanisms and application programs, will hide low-level details and make collection of networks appear to be a single, large network, called internetwork or internet why lower case?

Dept. of ECE, GMU, Dr. Qiang Lin

TCOM 509 - 2012

Internetworking (Internet) objectives

Based on TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) suite to establish the basis to:
Accommodate multiple, diverse underlying hardware technologies Accommodate a wide variety of applications and arbitrary computer operating systems Interconnect millions of networks and billions of computer Not engineered from a single networking technology because no technology suffices for all uses Hide details of network hardware so computers to communicate independent of their physical network connection

Dept. of ECE, GMU, Dr. Qiang Lin

TCOM 509 - 2012

TCP/IP Protocol features and benefits Provide syntactic and semantic rules for communication
Contain details of message formats Describe how a computer responds when a message arrives Specify how a computer handles errors or other abnormal conditions

Allow us to discuss computer communication independent of any particular vendors network hardware Improve productivity because of dealing with higher-level protocol abstractions
Programmers do not need to learn or remember details about a given hardware Programs do not need to be changed when computers or network hardware are replaced or reconfigured Applications can provide direct communication between an arbitrary pair of computers

Dept. of ECE, GMU, Dr. Qiang Lin

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TCP/IP Protocol interoperability and abstraction

Internet application programs exhibit a high degree of interoperability

Most users accessing Internet by running application programs without understanding
Types of computers being accessed TCP/IP technology Structure of underlying internets Path the data travels to its destination

Only application programmers need to view a TCP/IP internet as a network and need to understand some technology

Dept. of ECE, GMU, Dr. Qiang Lin

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Internet application services World Wide Web

Allows user to view documents that contain text and graphics and to follow hypermedia links from one document to another

Electronic Mail (e-mail) allows users to File transfer allows users to send or receive data files
The oldest and still heavily used

Remote login and remote desktop allows a user sitting at one computer to connect to a remote machine and use it as local
Keystrokes are sent to the remote machine Display from the remote machine appears on the users screen

Dept. of ECE, GMU, Dr. Qiang Lin

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Network level Internet services TCP/IP provides two broad types of service that all application programs use
Connectionless packet delivery service
Best-effort delivery Not guarantee reliable, in order delivery Extremely efficient

Reliable stream transport service, connection-oriented

To recover transmission errors, lost packets, or failures of switches along the path between sender and receiver Allows an application on one computer to establish a connection with an application one another computer Then, to send a large volume of data across the connection as if it were permanent, direct connection

Dept. of ECE, GMU, Dr. Qiang Lin

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Application-level interaction Early concept to interconnect heterogeneous networks through application-level programs called application gateways
An application-level program executing on each computer in the network It understands details of network connections for that computer and interoperates across those connections with application programs on other computers

Dept. of ECE, GMU, Dr. Qiang Lin

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Application-level interaction (cont) May seen natural at first, but results in limited, cumbersome communication
Adding new functionality means building a new application program for such computer Adding new network hardware means modifying existing programs or creating new programs for each possible application On a given computer, each application program must understand the network connections for the computer, resulting in duplication of code

Once interconnections grow to hundreds or thousands of networks, it fails to scale because

No one can possibly build all necessary application programs

Dept. of ECE, GMU, Dr. Qiang Lin

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Network-level interaction An alternative to application-level interconnection

Provides a mechanism that delivers small packets of data, instead of files or large messages, from source to ultimate destination without using intermediate application program

Dept. of ECE, GMU, Dr. Qiang Lin

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Network-level interaction (cont) It maps directly onto the underlying network hardware
Make it extremely efficient

Separates data communication activities from application programs

Permit intermediate computers to handle network traffic without understanding applications that are sending or receiving

Keep entire system flexible

Make it possible to build general purpose communication facilities

Allows network managers to easily add new network technologies

By modifying or adding a single piece of new network-level software while application programs remain unchanged

Dept. of ECE, GMU, Dr. Qiang Lin

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Internet architecture

How are networks interconnected to form an internetwork?

Physically, two networks can only be connected by a computer that attaches to both of them However, a physical attachment does not guarantee interconnection because computers may not cooperate with others that wish to communicate

Need a special computers, routers, are willing to transfer packets from one network to another
Each network, net1, net2 and net3, can be either LAN or WAN Each may have many computers or a few attached

Dept. of ECE, GMU, Dr. Qiang Lin

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Routers small computers An internet includes many networks and routers Each router needs to know about the topology of the internet beyond the networks to which it connects
For a large internet composed of many networks, it is complex for routers to determine where to send packets

Routers used with TCP/IP internets are usually small computers

Have little disk storage and modest main memories We can build a small internet router because routers use destination network, not destination computer, when forwarding a packet Therefore, a router only needs to keep information proportional to number of networks in the internet, not the number of computers

Dept. of ECE, GMU, Dr. Qiang Lin

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Two views of internet

User vi
TCP/IP treats all networks equally
Host

A LAN like an Ethernet, a WAN used as a backbone or a point-to-point link between two computers each count as one network Ensure each network is reachable

Internet (internet)
Single large (global) network Users computers are all attached directly No other structure visible
Dept. of ECE, GMU, Dr. Qiang Lin
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Packet transmission paradigm Source computer

Generates a packet Sends across one network to a router

Intermediate router(s)
Forwards (routes) packet to next router

Final router
Delivers packet to destination

Dept. of ECE, GMU, Dr. Qiang Lin

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TCP/IP history
The TCP/IP protocols were initially developed as part of the research network developed by the United States Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA or ARPA). Initially, this fledgling network, called the ARPAnet, was designed to use a number of protocols that had been adapted from existing technologies. However, they all had flaws or limitations, either in concept or in practical matters such as capacity, when used on the ARPAnet. The developers of the new network recognized that trying to use these existing protocols might eventually lead to problems as the ARPAnet scaled to a larger size and was adapted for newer uses and applications. In 1973, development of a full-fledged system of internetworking protocols for the ARPAnet began. What many people don't realize is that in early versions of this technology, there was only one core protocol: TCP. And in fact, these letters didn't even stand for what they do today; they were for the Transmission Control Program. The first version of this predecessor of modern TCP was written in 1973, then revised and formally documented in RFC 675, Specification of Internet Transmission Control Program, December 1974.

Dept. of ECE, GMU, Dr. Qiang Lin

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TCP/IP timeline
1973 "A Partial Specification of an International Transmission Protocol" is written by Vint Cerf. This paper first makes a reference to TCP. Fragmentation and reassembly of messages, formerly done by node computers on the network, become the responsibility of host computers. Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn write "A Protocol for Packet Network Interconnection", which is later published in 1974. This is the most detailed TCP outline to this point, and precursor to the first official specification. 1974 December: A 3-way handshake is adopted for TCP. Cerf, Yogen Dalal, and Carl Sunshine write RFC 675, the first complete specification of TCP. The authors describe TCP in great depth, giving exact specifications for all elements of the Transmission Control Program. 1975 July: V. Cerf, A. McKenzie, R. Scantlebury and H. Zimmerman write "Proposal For An Internetwork End to End Protocol". The authors propose for a host to host protocol for computer networks being developed all over the world. 1976 October: Birchfiel, Plummer and Tomlinson write IEN 18, " Proposed Revisions to the TCP" which proposes changes to the TCP previously specified in RFC 675. Tomlinson discovered that the first design of TCP lacked and needed a three-way handshake in order to distinguish the start of a new TCP connection from old random duplicate packets that showed up too late from an earlier exchange. 1977 March: Cerf writes IEN 5, " TCP Version 2 Specification" . July: The triple network Internet is demonstrated for the first time. Cerf, Kahn and others link up 3 networks using TCP: packet radio, ARPANET and SATNET. Messages travel 94,000 miles from San Francisco to London to California "without dropping a single bit". August: Jon Postel writes IEN 2, in which he disusses internet protocol as being formed by two components: a hop to hop oriented protocol, and an end to end oriented protocol. 1978 January: Cerf and Postel write IEN 21, "TCP Version 3 Specification" which begins the splitting of TCP into TCP/IP. IP becomes in charge of routing the packets, while TCP takes care of packeting, error control, re-transmission and reassembly. TCP/IP enables fast and inexpensive gateways to be built. Jon Postel writes the fourth version specification for both TCP and IP. This is the first time IP has it's own formal specifcation. No less than five 2-day meetings are held this year to discuss TCP. Jon Postel writes the meeting notes, which are in IEN's 65-69. 1979 Postel writes new specifications for TCP and IP which show up in IEN's 123, 124, 127, 128. 1980 January: RFC's 760 and 761 outline new specifications for the two protocols. Febuary: TCP/IP becomes the preferred military protocol. 23 TCOM 509 - 2012

Dept. of ECE, GMU, Dr. Qiang Lin

Internet map in February 82

Dept. of ECE, GMU, Dr. Qiang Lin

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TCP/IP protocol suite

Dept. of ECE, GMU, Dr. Qiang Lin

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Universal identifiers

A communication system is said to supply universal communication service if

The system allows any host computer to communicate with any other host

To make our communication system universal, it needs a globally accepted method of identifying each computer that attaches to it Often, host identifiers are classified as names, addresses, or routes
Shoch [1978] suggests:
A name identifies what an object is An address identifies where it is A route tells how to get there

People prefer pronounceable names to identify machines Software works more efficiently with compact binary representations of identifiers known as TCP/IP address
Dept. of ECE, GMU, Dr. Qiang Lin
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IPv4 address

An IP address is carefully chosen as a 32-bit integer to make packet forwarding efficient

An IP address encodes the identification of the network to which a host attaches as well as the identification of a unique host on that network A prefix of an IP address identifies a network The IP addresses in all hosts on a given network share a common prefix

Conceptually, each IP address is a pair (netid, hostid)

netid identifies a network hostid identifies a host on that network

In practice, the partition between prefix and suffix is not uniform

The original IPv4 address is known as classful address

Does an IP address uniquely identify a host on internet?

Dept. of ECE, GMU, Dr. Qiang Lin

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IPv4 classful address

Dept. of ECE, GMU, Dr. Qiang Lin

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IPv4 classful address property and advantage

Classful addresses are self-identifying Consequences

Can determine boundary between prefix and suffix from the address itself No additional state needed to store boundary information Both hosts and routers benefit

Classful addresses
Are computationally efficient
First bits specify size of prefix / suffix

Allows mixtures of large and small networks

Dept. of ECE, GMU, Dr. Qiang Lin

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TCOM 509 - 2012

Myth about IP address Special cases can an IP address identify a host?

When a router attaches to two physical networks When a computer has two or more network connections

Because IP address encode both a network and a host on that network, an address does not specify an individual computer, but a connection to a network

Dept. of ECE, GMU, Dr. Qiang Lin

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TCOM 509 - 2012

Network and directed broadcast addresses An IP address can refer to networks as well as hosts
By convention, hostid 0 is never assigned to an individual host An IP address with hostid portion equal to zero refers to the network itself

Directed broadcast address

When a packet sent to an address with hostid of all 1s, reserved as directed broadcast address, routers along the path use the netid portion when choosing a path The immediate routers do not look at the host portion Only the last router attached to the destination network will examine the host portion of a pack

Broadcast address does not guarantee efficient delivery

On Ethernet, broadcasting is as efficient as unicast transmission? On ATM or Frame Relay?

Dept. of ECE, GMU, Dr. Qiang Lin

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TCOM 509 - 2012

Limited broadcast Directed broadcast address, a powerful mechanism

Allows a remote system to send a single packet that will broadcast on the specified network However, to avoid potential problems, many sites configure routers to reject all directed broadcast packets Requires to know the network address

Limited broadcast address, or local network broadcast address consists of thirty-two 1s

Called all 1s broadcast address Used for startup procedure before a host learns its IP address or prefix for the network Prefer to use directed broadcast address after the host learns the correct IP address for the network

A general rule, TCP/IP restricts broadcasting to the smallest possible set of machines
Dept. of ECE, GMU, Dr. Qiang Lin
32 TCOM 509 - 2012

All zeros IP address and multicast All zeros address

Can only appear as source address Used during bootstrap before computer knows its address Means this computer

Multicast
IP allows Internet multicast, but no Internet-wide multicast delivery system currently in place Class D addresses reserved for multicast Each address corresponds to group of participating computers IP multicast uses hardware multicast when available

Dept. of ECE, GMU, Dr. Qiang Lin

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TCOM 509 - 2012

Subnet and classless extensions Classful address worked as the originally planned, but did not last long
Requiring a unique prefix for each physical network would exhaust the address space quickly during 1980s as LAN technologies became popular and network proliferated?

Subnetting allows multiple physical networks to share a single network prefix Classless addressing allows division between prefix and suffix to occur at an arbitrary point in the address Supernetting allows an ISP to assign an organization a block of class C addresses instead of a single class B number
One of the first uses of classless addressing

Dept. of ECE, GMU, Dr. Qiang Lin

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Weaknesses in IP address Most obvious disadvantage, addresses refer to network connections, not to the host computer
If a host computer moves from one network to another, its IP address must change; how to solve this? Consider an example of a traveler who wishes to
Disconnect his or her personal computer Carry it on a trip, and Reconnect it to the internet after reaching the destination This computer cannot be assigned a permanent IP address because an IP address identifies the network to which the machine attaches

Early binding
Once a prefix size is chosen, the max number of hosts on a network is fixed If the network grows beyond the original bound, a new prefix must be selected and all hosts on the network must be renumbered It is incredibly time-consuming and difficult to debug to change all hosts IP addresses

Dept. of ECE, GMU, Dr. Qiang Lin

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Multiple IP addresses Because forwarding uses netid of IP address, the paths taken by packets with multiple IP addresses depend on the address used It may not be sufficient to deliver packets by merely knowing the destinations IP address
If interface I3 become disconnected, A must use I5 to reach B, sending packets through router R

Dept. of ECE, GMU, Dr. Qiang Lin

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Dotted decimal notation

When communicated to humans, either in documents or applications, IP addresses are written as four decimal integers separated by decimal points

Dept. of ECE, GMU, Dr. Qiang Lin

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Loopback address

Not all values in an address space from a class of IP addresses are assigned
For example, 128.0.0.0 is not assigned

Network prefix 127.0.0.0, a value from the class A range, is reserved for loopback
Intended for use in testing TCP/IP and inter-process communication on the local computer When a program uses the loopback address as a destination, TCP/IP will not send the data to any network Can a datagram bearing an IP address 127.x.x.x appear on any network?

Dept. of ECE, GMU, Dr. Qiang Lin

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Who assigns IP addresses?

Each network address prefix within a given internet must be unique

There is no restriction if an organization is to build a private internet!? An organization connecting to the global Internet must not use address prefixes assigned to another organization

To ensure the uniqueness of netid in the global Internet, all Internet address are assigned by a central authority
Until 1998, all netids had been assigned by the Internet Assigned Number Authority (IANA) After 1998, a new organization, named Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN) took over the assignment

Dept. of ECE, GMU, Dr. Qiang Lin

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Who assigns IP addresses? (cont)

The actual assignment goes through a hierarchy of:

ICANN -> Major ISPs ->local ISPs

Each host on a network has a unique suffix

Assigned locally Local administrator must ensure uniqueness

Dept. of ECE, GMU, Dr. Qiang Lin

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