Blood Tissue-organization-cells

Blood cells

-formed elements
-erythrocytes (RBCs) (>90% of all cells)

-leukocytes (WBCs)
-granulocytes
-neutrophil (40-70%)
-eosinophil (1-6%)
-basophil (<1%)
-agranulocytes
-lymphocyte (20-50%)
-monocyte (3-8%)

-platelets
Blood Tissue-organization-cells-leukocytes

Leukocytes
-immune response
-use blood as transport
-act in tissue (migratory)

-granulocytes
-secretory granules visible
-names stems from staining
-multilobed nucleus
-originate in bone marrow

-polymorphonuclear leukocyte (PMNs)

-myeloid cells

-agranulocytes
-secretory granules not visible

-mononuclear leukocytes
Blood Tissue-organization-cells-neutrophils

Neutrophils
-40-70% of circulating leukocytes
-multilobed nucleus
-chemotactic to inflammation site
-phagocytic (bacteria), suicidal = pus
-granules don’t stain well (neutral)
-primary granules-lysosomes
-secondary granules-inflammation
-tertiary granules-proteases, cams
Blood Tissue-organization-cells-neutrophils

Eosinophils
-1-6% of circulating leukocytes
-bilobed nucleus
-short life span <8hrs
-phagocytic (parasites)
-granules usually red (stain = eosin)
-same size = bag of marbles
-granules large crystalline
-hydrolytic enzymes
Blood Tissue-organization-cells-basophils
Basophils
-<1% of circulating leukocytes
-bilobed nucleus, hard to see (granules)
-phagocytic (parasites) (mast cell)
-granules blue (stain = toluidine blue)
-metachromasia, sometimes red
-granules proteoglycans
-histamine (anaphylaxsis)
-allergic responses
-immediate acute response
-IgE receptors = trigger
Blood Tissue-organization-cells-lymphocytes
Lymphocytes
-20-50% of circulating leukocytes
-average human has 10 trillion !
-nucleus = most of cell, cytoplasm blue
-small = inactive
-large = active, organelle amplification
-T-lymphocytes
-cell mediated immune response
-B-lymphocytes secrete antibodies
-in tissue = plasma cell
Blood Tissue-organization-cells-monocytes
Monocytes
-3-8% of circulating leukocytes
-largest circulating cell
-nucleus = bean shape
-in tissue = macrophage (scavenger)
-cell mediated immune response
-antigen presenting cell
-large golgi
-lysosomes
-slow response to injury
-chemotactic to necrosis
Blood Tissue-organization-cells-platelets

Plateletes
-small cells
-fragments of megakaryocyte
-contain all organelles except nucleus
-first line in clotting
-bind collagen at wound
-scaffold for clot
-allow thrombin generation
Circulatory system-blood vessels-arteries

Arteries
-function
-distribute blood from heart to tissues
-systole
-heart pump
-artery expansion
-diastole
-heart relaxes
-recoil contraction of arteries
-arteries have large tunica media
-smooth muscle regulates pressure
-elastic fibers
-3 types of arteries
-elastic
-muscular
-arterioles
Circulatory system-blood vessels-arteries

Elastic Arteries
-close to heart
-elastic nature acts as a buffer
-intima
-media (thick)
-mostly elastic fiber
-collagen
-adventitia (thin)
-vasa vasorum
Circulatory system-blood vessels-arteries

Muscular Arteries
-distributing arteries
-tunica intima
-tunica media
-inner elastic lamina
-smooth muscle
-8-40 layers
-external elastic lamina
-adventitia (thick)
-collagen elastic fibers
-small muscular artery thinner
Circulatory system-blood vessels-arterioles

Arterioles
-blood supply in tissues
-common in skin, digestive tract
-tunica intima
-endothelium
-tunica media (thick)
-smooth muscle
-1-8 layers
-adventitia
-often cannot discern
Circulatory system-blood vessels-capillaries

Types of Capillaries
-continuous capillary
-transport via pinocytosis
-common

-fenestrated capillary
-transport via openings
-kidney, gut

-discontinuous capillary
-endothelial holes
-basal lamina holes
-liver
Circulatory system-blood vessels-capillaries

Endothelial cells
-barrier -paracrine secretions
-active transport (selective) -block clotting
-make basal lamina -regulate blood flow
-von Willebrand factor (factor VIII) -inflammation
-clotting factor
Circulatory system-blood vessels-veins

Veins

-function
-collect blood from tissues
-low pressure system
-less elastic fibers
-skeletal muscle contraction
-breathing (negative pressure)
-veins have large tunica adventitia
-collagen
-valves
-3 types of veins
-venules (collecting venules)
-muscular veins
-veins
Circulatory system-blood vessels-veins

Venules
-blood supply in tissues
-common in skin, digestive tract
-tunica intima
-endothelium
-tunica media
-1-2 layers smooth muscle
-adventitia
-thickest layer
Circulatory system-blood vessels-veins

Muscular veins
-blood supply in tissues
-common in skin, digestive tract
-tunica intima
-endothelium
-tunica media
-1-5 layers smooth muscle
-adventitia
-thickest layer
Circulatory system-blood vessels-veins

Large veins
-Return blood to heart
-tunica intima
-endothelium
-tunica media
-5+ layers smooth muscle
-some elastic fibers
-adventitia
-thickest layer
-vasa vasorum
Circulatory system-blood vessels-veins

valves
-prevent back flow
-medium veins (muscular)
-extensions of tunica intima
-endothelium
-connective tissue
Circulatory system-blood vessels-comparison

Arteries vs Veins
-arterioles round
-venules often flattened

-medium arteries
-tunica media smooth muscle
-IEL
-medium veins
-tunica adventitia
-valves

-large arteries
-elastic fibers
-media = 2X adventitia
-large veins
-adventitia = 2X media
Circulatory system-blood vessels-comparison

Arteries vs Veins
-arterioles round
-venules often flattened

-medium arteries
-tunica media smooth muscle
-IEL
-medium veins
-tunica adventitia
-valves

-large arteries
-elastic fibers
-media = 2X adventitia
-large veins
-adventitia = 2X media
Circulatory system-blood vessels-comparison

Arteries vs Veins
-arterioles round
-venules often flattened

-medium arteries
-tunica media smooth muscle
-IEL
-medium veins
-tunica adventitia
-valves

-large arteries
-elastic fibers
-media = 2X adventitia
-large veins
-adventitia = 2X media
Circulatory system-lymphatic system

Lymphatic System
-collects fluids from connective tissues
-found in all organs
-common in digestive tract

-vessels consisting of endothelium only

-often flattened
-NO RBCs
Circulatory system-heart

-epicardium
-covered with simple squamous epithelium
-mesothelium
-lots of adipose tissue
-increases with age
Circulatory system-heart

-myocardium
-cardiac muscle
-thickest layer
-ventricle folds = trabeculae carnae

RBCs

myocardium
Circulatory system-heart

-endocardium
-endothelium
-loose connective tissue
-thick in atria

endocardium
Integument-skin

Skin structure

-3 layers

- epidermis
-epithelium
-no blood vessels

- dermis
-connective tissue
-blood vessels
-sweat gland ducts
-hair
-sensory receptors

-hypodermis
-adipose tissue
-connective tissue
-sweat glands
Integument-epidermis

Epidermis
-layers of progressively differentiating
keratinocytes

-stratum corneum
-cornified layer = dead cells
-flakey appearance

-stratum granulosum
-usually dark staining cells
-vacuolated nucleus (dying)
-cells acquiring keratin granules

-stratum spinosum
-spiney layer = desmosomes
-bright line around cells

-stratum basale
-single layer of cells
-mitotic cells
-basal lamina
Integument-epidermis

Stratum basale

-sits on basal lamina

-connection to dermis
-lots of folds
=↑SA=strength
-keratinocyte stem cells
-mitotic figures
-melanocytes
-synthesize melanin
-massive golgi
−looks empty
-cell/cell junctions
-lots of desmosomes
-cell/matrix junctions
-hemidesmosome
Integument-epidermis

Stratum spinosum
-often thickest layer
-some mitosis
-increased adhesion
-desmosomes
-tonofilaments
-cells flattened
-langerhans cells
-macrophage
Integument-epidermis

Stratum granulosum
-3-5 cells deep
-cells nucleated (changes)
-cells flattened
-keratohyalin granules
-lamellar granules
-coat membranes
-protective role (sealant)
-reptiles
Integument-epidermis

Stratum corneum

-layers of flattened dead cells

-no nuclei
-cross linked keratin filaments
-tough
-protection
-top layers sloughed
-stratum lucidum
-intense staining junction
between corneum and
granulosum
-not always visible
-THICK skin
Integument-epidermis

Epidermis
-basale to corneum 10-14 days
-responsive to use
-thickens in response to stress
-thickness varies by location
-thin skin (scalp)
-thick skin (palms of hands)
-papillae
-touch
Integument-epidermis
Melanocyte
-transient cell
-clear, round
-dies in stratum spinosum
-makes pigment (melanin)
-UV protection nucleus
-expose UV light
-increase melanin production
-increase branching
-increase uptake
Integument-epidermis

Langerhans Cell
-”dendritic cell”
-arborized (branched)
-long processes
-macrophage descendent
-antigen presenting cell
-stratum spinosum
Integument-dermis

Dermis
-dense irregular connective tissue
-structural support
-protection
-blood vessels
-nerves
-sensory receptors
-epidermal specializations
-hair
-sweat glands
-sebacous glands
Integument-dermis

Dermis
-connects epidermis to hypodermis
-two layers
-papillary layer
-looser connective tissue
-reticular layer
-dense irregular
Integument-dermis

Dermis
-papillary layer
-elastin fibers
-cells… mast, plasma, etc
-papillae
-receptors
-capillary loops

-reticular layer
-few cells
-lots of collagen
-some elastin
-blood vessels
-arterioles
-venuoles
Integument-circulation
Circulation
-nutrition and thermal regulation
-cutaneous plexus (branch point)
-hypo/dermis border
-anastomosis (keep heat in)
-subpapillary plexus
-reticular/papillary border
-papillary loops (radiation)
Integument-receptors
Sensory Receptors
-major function for skin
-dermis
-meissener’s corpuscle
-light touch
-epidermis
-merkel cell
-high resolution
-bare nerve
-pain, heat
-hypodermis
-pacinian corpuscle
-deep touch, vibration
Meissner’s Merkel Bare nerve Pacinian
Integument-skin

Epidermal projections
-papillae
-projections of dermis

-epidermal ridges
-projections of epidermis

-not really fingerprints…

Integument-hypodermis

Hypodermis
-part of skin ???

-unilocular connective tissue

-energy storage
-insulation (seals etc)
-shock absorption
-site of major blood vessels
-medium arteries/veins
-glands and ducts
-keratinocyte stem cells

-gross anatomy = superficial fascia

Integument-epidermal derivatives

Eccrine Sweat glands

-gland = cluster of tubes in XS
-often in white adipose tissue

-found at border dermis/hypodermis

-common in thick skin

-gland has myoepithelial cells

-sharkstooth
-duct has smooth boundary
Integument-epidermal derivatives

Eccrine Sweat glands

-gland = pale
epithelium = simple to stratified
-dark cells - glycoproteins
-clear cells - fluid transport
-cell types not always clear

-duct = dark
-epithelium= stratified
-dermis/epidermis
Integument-epidermal derivatives

Apocrine Sweat glands

-Apocrine
-merocrine secretion
-gland = pale
-hypodermis/dermis
-large lumen
-irregular lumen

-duct = dark
-dermis/epidermis

-secretes into hair follicle

-armpits, groin
-secretion odorless
-protein, carbohydrate
-bacteria gives it aroma

-bacterial infection = acne

Integument-epidermal derivatives

Sebaceous glands
-branched acinar gland
-empties into hair follicle
-holocrine secretion
-whole cell (cells big)
-secretion = sebum
-oil for hair
Integument-epidermal derivatives

Sebaceous glands
Integument-epidermal derivatives

Hair
-epidermal origin
-hair = keratin
-follicle passes through dermis
-root in hypodermis
-protection
-thermoregulation
-sensory
Integument-epidermal derivatives

Hair
-five layers epithelial cells
-3 inner = hair (keratinized)
-2 outer = sheath

-base = bulb
-site of proliferation
-melanocytes
-papilla
-blood vessels
Integument-epidermal derivatives
Hair
-medulla (M) = centre
-cortex (Cx) = hair
-cuticle (Cu) = cells
-inner root sheath (IRS)
-stratum granulosum
-external root sheath (ERS)
-stratum spinosum
-glassy membrane (GM)
-basal lamina
-connective tissue
Integument-epidermal derivatives

Hair
-medulla = centre
-rare to see
-cortex = hair
-cuticle
-pale thin layer of cells
-inner root sheath
-usually dark layer of cells
-external root sheath
-thick layer of pale cells
-glassy membrane
-don’t always see it
-connective tissue
Integument-epidermal derivatives

Hair
-arrector pilli
-muscle
-elevates hair
-sebacous glands
Integument-epidermal derivatives

Nail
-fold of epidermis
-nail fold
-eponychium
-cuticle
-hyponychium
-nail = keratin
-nail bed
-skin….
-nail root
-proliferation
-papillae (folds)
-anchor

-toe nails grow slower

Digestive system-esophogus

Oesophagus
-mucosa
-stratified squamous
-lamina propria
-loose connective tissue
-elastic fibers
-muscularis mucosae
-smooth muscle (thin)

-submucosa
-loose connective tissue
-submucosal glands

-muscularis externa
-inner circular
-outer longitudinal
-upper esophagus = skeletal

-adventitia
-dense irregular
Digestive system-esophogus

Gastro-oesophageal Junction
-abrupt change
-stratified squamous to simple columnar
-mucosal glands
-no sphincter
-regulated via muscle tone
-thoracic vs gastric pressure
-diaphragm
Digestive system-stomach

Stomach
-Function
-digestion
-chemical
-physical
-chyme

-4 zones
-cardia
-fundus
-corpus
-pylorus

-epithelium = simple columnar

-secrete pepsinogen/acid
-acid activates pepsin
-endocrine cells
-G cells secrete gastrin
-stimulated by stretch
-D cells
-somatostatin
-inhibit G cells
Digestive system-stomach

Stomach
-Structure
-surface ~ smooth (low mag)
-rugae
-longitudinal folds = stretch
-layers
-mucosa
-glands
-submucosa
-muscularis externa
-extra innermost layer = oblique
Digestive system-stomach

Stomach
-Mucosal Glands
-opening = gastric pit
-multiple glands
-surface = mucous cells
-protective

-parietal cells
-mostly isthmus
-gastric acid (HCl)
-large, rounded
-chief cells
-at base
-pepsin
-basal nucleus
-dark granules
-neuroendocrine cells
-at base
-serotonin/gastrin
-hormones
-stem cells
Digestive system-stomach

Mucosal Gastric Glands

-located in mucosa
-apical to basal specialization
-regional
-cardiac = mucous cells
-fundus and corpus = parietal cells
chief cells
-pylorus = mucous cells and
enteroendocrine cells
Digestive system-small intestine

Small Intestine
-receives contents of stomach
-specialized for absorption
-increased surface area
-long ~5 metres
-folds = plicae circulares (X3)
-mucosa and submucosa
-mucosa = villi (X10)
-epithelium = microvilli (X20)
Digestive system-small intestine

Villus
-functional unit of small intestine (1 mm)
-simple columnar epithelium
-enterocytes = absorptive
-goblet cells = mucous (lubrication)
-paneth cells = antimicrobial
-neuroendocrine = hormones
-lymphocytes = immunological
-stem cells
-lamina propria
-loose connective tissue
-blood supply
-lymphatic vessels = lacteal
-lipid absorption
-crypts
-at base = glands
-muscularis mucosa
-sometimes in villus
Digestive system-small intestine

Villus
-functional specialization
-enterocytes absorb and process chyme
-amino acids/monosacharides = blood
-enzymes from pancreas/enterocytes
-lipids, triglycerides = lacteal
-enzymes = pancreas/bile (liver)
Digestive system-small intestine

Crypts of Lieberkuhn
-base of villus
-stem cells for enterocytes/goblet cells
-as cells mature move distal
-average life span 2-3 days
-base = paneth cells (red granules)
-antimicrobial enzymes
-long life span 2 weeks +
-enteroendocrine cells ??
Digestive system-duodenum

Duodenum
-receives contents of stomach
-neutralizes acid
-brunner’s glands
-mucous/HCO3
-submucosa
-common bile duct
-pancreas
Digestive system-jejenum

Jejenum
-more absorptive
-leaf shaped villi = wide
-long villi
-no brunner’s glands
-crypts to muscularis mucosa
Digestive system-ileum

Ileum
-finger shaped villi = shorter
-villi often branched
-plicae ciculares more obvious
-no brunner’s glands
-crypts to muscularis mucosa
-peyer’s patches
-lympoid tissue in mucosa
-increased number goblet cells

-stomach and small intestine are sterile

-no commensal bacteria

-digestion cooperative
-enteroendocrine cells stimulate
pancreas
-crypts secrete enterokinase
-activate trypsin (pancreas)
Digestive system-colon

Colon
-specialized for movement of fecal material
-mucosa
-no villi
-simple columnar epithelium = flat
-goblet cells
-submucosal lymphoid aggregates
-thick muscularis externa
-taenia coli external as 3 bands
Digestive system-colon

Colon
-specialized for water/salt absorption
-passive diffusion
-glands (crypts) are straight tubular
-luminal absorptive cells
-small dense nuclei
-basal mucous cells
-commensal bacteria
-vitamin absorption
Digestive system-rectum

Rectum
-most distal part of colon
-epithelium simple columnar lots of mucous cells
-glands are straight tubular
-columns of morgagni (mucosal folds)
-circumanal glands (branched tubular)
-mucous glands
-anus
-stratified squamous
-appocrine glands
Digestive system-sphincters

Sphincters
-muscular control over movement
-boundary between organs
-epithelial change
-esophogus
-no sphincter
-stomach
-pyloric sphincter
-bulge in inner circular layer externa
-regulated via hormones
released by pyloric stomach
-ileo-caecal sphincter
-valve
-muscularis mucosae
-rectal sphincter
-voluntary muscle
-skeletal muscle in externa
Digestive system-appendix

Appendix
-in ruminants digest cellulose
-"Its major importance would appear to be
financial support of the surgical profession."
-ileo-caecal junction
-blind ending tube
-epithelium simple columnar
-surface regular flat
-glands (crypts) are straight tubular
-sparse mucous
-lymphoid aggregates
-mucosa
-mcells
-submucosa
Digestive system-stomach

Stomach
-fundus and corpus -pylorus
-shallow gastric pits -deep gastric pits
-tall glands (tubular) -shallow glands (branched coiled)
Digestive system-duodenum

Duodenum Jejenum/Ileum
-receives contents of stomach -no submucosal glands
-neutralizes acid -ileum has
-brunner’s glands -peyer’s patches
-submucosa -branched villi
Colon Anus
-straight glands/goblet cells -startified squamous epithelium
-flat surface -ectodermal origin
Digestive system-liver

Liver
-functional unit = lobule
-classic lobule
-central vein
-portal triad

-portal acinus
-functional definition
-blood flow changes composition
-decreasing oxygenation
-changes in nutrient and waste
content

-your text ????

Digestive system-liver

Liver lobule
-functional unit = lobule
-central hepatic venule
-portal triad
-portal venule
-hepatic artery
-bile duct
-lymphatic vessels
Digestive system-liver

Liver lobule
-functional unit = lobule
-central hepatic venule
-blood flows centrally
-low pressure
-slow flow
-tissue = parenchyma
-plates
-sinusoids (capillaries)
Digestive system-liver hepatocyte

Hepatocytes
-liver cells = hepatocytes
-polyploid, sometimes binucleate
-functions
-absorption and processing of
nutrients (glycogen)
-production and secretion of
plasma proteins
-production and secretion of bile
Digestive system-liver

Hepatocytes
-make bile
-exported to cell surface
- bile canaliculi
-spaces between hepatocytes
-lining is plasma membrane
-bile ductules
-hepatic duct
-lining = simple cuboidal
Digestive system-liver

Liver lobule
-functional unit = lobule
-sinusoids
-modified capillaries
-fenestrated
-delivery of nutrients
-pick up of proteins
Digestive system-liver

Sinusoids
-space of disse
-space allows intimate contact with
hepatocytes (microvilli)
-support is reticular connective tissue
-stroma
Digestive system-liver

Sinusoids
-capillaries
-endothelium (simple squamous)
-kupffer cells
-macrophages
-remove debris
-remove erythrocytes

-stellate cells
-store vitamin A
-synthesize matrix
Digestive system-gallbladder

Gallbladder
-storage and concentration of bile
-liver
-bile via hepatic ducts
-gallbladder
-cystic duct
-common bile duct
-duodenum sphincter of oddi
-fasting = closed
-bile to gallbladder
-feeding = open, gallbladder
contracts (neuroendocrine cells)

-gallbladder
-simple columnar epithelium (microvilli)
-absorptive (water)
Digestive system-pancreas

Pancreas
-mixed gland
-exocrine
-zymogen
-bicarbonate rich fluid

-compound acinar
-acinus = secretory
-ducts = transport, modification
Digestive system-pancreas

Pancreas
-acini
-apical granules (zymogen)
-basal clear area = golgi
-ducts
-intercalated duct
-cells secrete bicarbonate
-interlobular duct
-pancreatic duct - common bile duct
Skeletal system-bone cells

Bone Cells
Skeletal system-bone cells

Osteoblasts
-located outside bone
-periosteum (under CT)
-endosteum

-synthesize bone
-secrete osteoid (matrix)
-inactive = squamous
-active = cuboidal

-ultrastructure
-RER (making protein)
-golgi (packaging)
-vesicles (export)
Skeletal system-bone cells

Osteocytes
-located inside bone
-surrounded by matrix
-lacunae
-canaliculi
-gap junctions
Skeletal system-bone cells

Osteoclasts
-located surface bone
-large multinucleate
-derived eosinophil/monocyte lineage
-bone re-absorption
-enzymes, acid
-endocytosis, vesicles
-blood vessels
-ruffled zone = absorption
-clear zone = adhesion
Skeletal system-bone coverings

Periosteum
-exterior surface bone
-outer fibrous layer
-dense irregular connective tissue
-blood vessels
-nerves
-inner cellular layer
-osteogenic layer
-looser connective tissue
-cuboidal cells (active)
-continuity with collagen of bone
-sharpey’s fibres
Skeletal system-bone coverings

Endosteum
-interior surface bone
-lines marrow cavity
-simple squamous
-simple cuboidal (active)