QCC & 7qc Tools

QCC & 7 Quality Control Tools For Problem Solvings
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MODULE 1 UNDERSTANDING QC CIRCLE
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Overview
What are Quality Circles? How Do Quality Circles Work? How Can They be Used in an Organization?
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What is a Quality Circle?

Voluntary groups of employees who work on similar tasks or share an area of responsibility They agree to meet on a regular basis to discuss & solve problems related to work. They operate on the principle that employee participation in decision-making and problemdecisionproblemsolving improves the quality of work
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How Do Quality Circles Work?

Characteristics Volunteers Set Rules and Priorities Decisions made by Consensus Use of organized approaches to Problem-Solving
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How Do Quality Circles Work?

All members of a Circle need to receive training Members need to be empowered Members need to have the support of Senior Management
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How Can They be Used in an Organization?

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Increase Productivity Improve Quality Boost Employee Morale Increase in employee quality consciousness Problem prevention becomes habitual Promotion of employee motivation Improvement in the human relations More effective company communication
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How Can They be Used in an Organization?

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More active job involvement Utilization of problem solving capabilities Contribution to personnel development Encouragement of teamwork Improvement of work environment Development of safety awareness Control and improvement of quality Productivity improvement Increased job security
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Problems with Quality Circles

Inadequate Training Unsure of Purpose Not truly Voluntary Lack of Management Interest Quality Circles are not really empowered to make decisions.
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MODULE 2 DATA COLLECTION

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CATEGORIES OF DATA
Primary Data Secondary Data
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PRIMARY DATA
The data, which are collected from the units or individual respondents directly for the purpose of certain study or information. Example: If an experiment is conducted to know the effect of fertilizer doses on the yield OR the effect of a drug on the patients, the observation taken on each plot or patient constitute the primary data.
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SECONDARY DATA
The data, which had been collected by certain people or agency, and statistically treated. Now the information contained in it is used again from records, processed and statistically analyzed to extract some information for other purpose.
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SECONDARY DATA
Example: Secondary data is obtained from year books, census report, survey reports, official reports or reported experimental findings.
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ANALYSIS OF DATA
One of the most important objectives is to process the observed data and transform it to a form most suitable for decision making.
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DATA PROCESSING
Before tabulation of primary data, it should be edited for:
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Completeness Consistency Accuracy Homogeneity

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ANALYSIS OF DATA The measures of central tendency and dispersion are parts of data analysis along with the estimation and testing of hypothesis:
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Mean Median Mode Standard deviation

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ANALYSIS OF DATA The data: 4,5,5,4,8,4,3,7.
Mean Median Mode Standard deviation Range

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ANALYSIS OF DATA The data: 4,5,5,4,8,4,3,7. Mean = 4+5+5+4+8+4+3+7 8 Mean = 40/8 = 5 Median = 3,4,4,4,5,5,7,8 ( Select Two centered Data) Median = ( 4+5)/2 = 4.5 Mode
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= 3,4,4,4,5,5,7,8 = 4 (Most Frequently Occurring Number)

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ANALYSIS OF DATA The data: 4,5,5,4,8,4,3,7. Standard deviation = 1.69

(X-Bar X)2 = ( n 1)
Range = Max Min =83=5

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P Value = 0.1377 Data is Normal Median =4.5 This tool is given free
Mean = 5
Range = 5
Mode = 4
STD Dev=1.69
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MODULE 3
The Basic 7 Quality Tools
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The Basic 7 Quality Tools.

Ishikawa believed that 90% of all quality problems could be solved through the use of the 7 tools listed below:

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Frequency Diagrams ( Histograms ) Cause and Effect (Ishikawa) Diagrams Check Sheets Pareto diagrams Flowcharts Scatter Diagrams Control Charts
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Where did the Basic Seven come from?

Kaoru Ishikawa Known for Democratizing Statistics The Basic Seven Tools made statistical analysis less complicated for the average person Good Visual Aids make statistical and quality control more comprehensible.
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Fishbone Diagrams
No statistics involved Maps out a process/problem Makes improvement easier Looks like a Fish Skeleton
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Fishbone Diagrams
Area A
4 1 2 3 5 6
Area B
1 2 3
4 5 6
Possible Causes
4 5 6 3 2 1 6 3 5 2 4 1
PROBLEM (EFFECT)
Area C
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Fishbone Diagrams
Step 1 - Identify the Problem Step 2 - Draw spine and bones Step 3 - Identify different areas where problems may arise from Step 4 - Identify what these specific causes could be Step 5 Use the finished diagram to brainstorm solutions to the main problems.
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Fishbone Diagrams
Machines
Solder Gun
Size
Manpower
Skill Training
Heat sink
Physical limits
Power Source
Bad Solder Joints

Technique
Manual
Terminals Flux Stripping Solder Wire Gauge
Methods
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In the above example, Ive added some causes and some common categories know as the 4 Ms Machines, Manpower, Methods and Materials. How do we arrive at the possible causes? The best (and most common) method is brainstorming. This generates a large number of ideas in a short period of time. Once the diagram is complete, then we can continue with the evaluation. We obviously can not tackle all the problems at once because there are too many and besides some will have such small effects that they will not be worth bothering about.
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Fishbone Diagrams
Machines
Solder Gun
Size
Manpower
Skill Training
Heat sink
Physical limits
Power Source
Bad Solder Joints

Technique
Manual
Terminals Flux Stripping Solder Wire Gauge
Methods
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Fishbone On thisDiagrams the causes have been diagram, three of highlighted.

These are thought to be the most important, and the ones to tackle. WHY? There are a number of ways of choosing the front runners. We could design a series of experiments to determine the biggest influence, OR We could use existing data or experience, OR We could make a judgement purely on opinion
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CAUSE & EFFECT DIAGRAM - Example
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WORKSHOP & PRESENTATION
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HISTOGRAM
WHAT IT IS?
Histograms are effective Q.C. tools which are used in the analysis of data. They are used as a check on specific process parameters to determine where the greatest amount of variation occurs in the process, or to determine if process specifications are exceeded. This statistical method does not prove that a process is in a state of control. Nonetheless, histograms alone have been used to solve many problems in quality control.
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HISTOGRAM ANALYSIS
How well is the histogram centered?
The centering of the data provides information on the process aim about some mean or nominal value. How wide is the histogram?
Looking at histogram width defines the variability of the process about the aim.
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HISTOGRAM ANALYSIS
What is the shape of the histogram? Remember that the data is expected to form a normal or bell-shaped curve. Any significant change or anomaly usually indicates that there is something going on in the process which is causing the quality problem.
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NORMAL
Depicted by a bell-shaped curve

Most frequent measurement appears as center of distribution Less frequent measurements taper gradually at both ends of distribution Indicates that a process is running normally (only common causes are present).
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BI-MODAL
Distribution appears to have two peaks May indicate that data from more than one process are mixed together Materials may come from two separate vendors Samples may have come from two separate machines.
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CLIFF-TYPE
Appears to end sharply or abruptly at one end Indicates possible sorting or inspection of non-conforming parts.
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SAWTOOTHED
Also commonly referred to as a comb distribution, appears as an alternating jagged pattern Often indicates a measuring problem Improper gage readings Gage not sensitive enough for readings.
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SKEWED
Positively Skewed Negatively Skewed
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Excercise
Construct an Histogram for the four distribution from the set data Plot Data. Can you determine the type of distribution from the Histogram? Can you determine the bimodal from the Histogram?
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Dist 1
Dist 2
This tool is given free
Dist 3
Dist 4
Measurements of 50 items from process XYZ 147 131 198 190 165 170 178 157 168 145
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179 137 142 161 155 125 181 135 141 177
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185 141 205 157 169 177 155 148 151 154
125 142 150 165 158 108 186 171 162 137
210 166 141 155 150 193 145 124 150 160
TALLY CHART RANGE 100-109 110-119 120-129 130-139 140-149 150-159 160-169 170-179 180-189 190-199 200-209 210-219 TOTAL
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TALLY | ||| |||| ||||| ||||| ||||| ||||| ||| ||| | | |||| ||||| ||| | | 1 0 3 4 9
NUMBER
11 8 6 3 3 1 1 50
HISTOGRAM
A tally is a simple form of categorising the data so as to let it speak for itself. In the first column, we have the basic categories themselves: 100 109, 110 119, and so on. In the second column, there is the tally the actual count of the number of items found in that category. In the third column is the actual number in the category, or the frequency. We now have the data in a form which speaks to us. The next obvious step is to display the data on a graph.
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Histogram of Data
Normal 12 10 8 Frequency 6 4 2 0 100 120 140 160 Data 180 200
Mean 158.4 StDev 21.80 N 50
Histogram of Data
Normal 125 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 100 120 140 160 Data 180 200 185
Mean StDev N 158.4 21.80 50
If we add the tolerance limits to the graph, we can see that we are going to have a large proportion of rejects from the process. From this it is easy to see how vital the concept of the frequency diagram is to analysing process capabilities
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F u cy req en
Compute the -Mean -Median -Standard Deviation -Range
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Check Sheets
Counting and accumulating data WHAT IS A CHECK SHEETS?
One of the most common form of data collection, the check sheet is a structured form containing a list of things you want to measure, inspect or record.
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Check Sheets
WHAT DOES CHECKLIST PREVENT

Forget to inspect Late inspection Ineffective inspection Partial inspection Not knowing who did the inspection No record for inspection done No action for inspection done
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Check Sheets
Product Number: 123456 Product Name: Widgits Line Name: Auto1 Process Name: Moulding 30/7 {M}
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Defective part
Mould Cracked Fibres Grit Pinholes Cracks Other TOTAL
31/7 {T}
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1/8 {W}
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2/8 {T}
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3/8 {F}
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TOTAL
21 8 14
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9 2
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7 8 61
13
14
15
11
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Check Sheets
Check sheets are used to systematically record data from historical sources or from observations as they happen so that patterns and trends can be clearly detected and shown. Check sheets minimise clerical effort since the operator merely adds a mark to the tally on the prepared sheet rather than writing out a figure.
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Product: Copper Pipe Date:14th April 2003 Manufacturing Stage: Final insp Inspectors Name: Sam Type of Defect: scratch, incomplete, misshapen Lot No: 24 Total No. inspected: 2530 Remarks: All inspected
Type Scratches Cracks Incomplete Misshapen Others //// //// //// //// ////
Check //// //// //// //// // //// //// //// /// //// //// //// //// //// / ///
Sub-Total 22 19 25 4 7
Grand Total Total Rejects //// //// //// //// //// //// //// //// //// //// //// //// //// //
77 54
PARETO DIAGRAM The 80/20 Principle :

Achieving More With Less
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Pareto Discovery
In the late 19th century, an Italian economist by the name of Vilfredo Pareto undertook a study on the distribution of wealth in Italy. Pareto discovered that about 80% of the wealth in Italy was distributed to only 20% of the Italian families. In society, 80% of the value of all crimes committed was caused by 20% of the criminals In life, most happiness enjoyed by a person occurred during 20% of his lifetime. At work, 80% of ones valuable output occurred in 20% of his time
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The 80/20 Thinking & Analysis

To engage in 80/20 thinking, we must constantly ask ourselves: What is the 20% that is leading the 80%? What are the vital few causes or inputs as opposed to the trivial many ?
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The 80/20 Principle, as applied to Quality Management
The pioneer of the 80/20 principle was Joseph Juran : - the great Quality Management Practitioner - the man behind the global quality revolution of the late 20th century
This Romanian-born US Engineer Juran alternately called the Pareto Principle or the 80/20 Principle the so-called The Rule of the Vital Few and the Trivial Many virtually synonymous with the search for high quality products and services.
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Why The 80/20 Principle Is So Important ?

Whether you realize it or not, the 80/20 Principle applies to: Your life Your social world The place where you work Your business For each individual and each business, it is always possible to obtain much more that is of value and avoid what has negative value, with much less input of effort, expense or investment.
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80/20 As Applied To Daily Life

Only do things we are best at doing and enjoy most In every important aspect in life, work out where 20% of effort will lead to 80% of return Choose your career and employers with care, and if possible, employ others rather than being employed yourself Make the most of the lucky few streaks in your life Strive for excellence in few things, rather than good performance in many Calm down, work less and target a limited number of goals
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80/20 Thinking Is Reflective
The objective of the 80/20 Thinking is to generate actions which will make sharp improvements in your life and that of others
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80/20 Thinking Is Reflective

To be strategic is to concentrate on what is important in the long run, on those few things that can give us a comparative advantage, on what is important to us than others, and to plan and execute the resulting plan with determination and steadfastness.
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80/20 Insights For Individuals

80 % of achievements and happiness in life, takes place in 20% of our time Our lives are profoundly affected for good and ill, by a few events and a few decisions in our life Everyone can achieve something significant. The key is not effort, but finding the right thing to achieve There are winners and losers and always more of the latter. You can be a winner by choosing the right competition, the right team and the right methods to win
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80/20 As It Applies To Business

o That losses (manufactured goods that have to be rejected because of poor quality) do not arise from a large number of causes. Rather the causes are always mal-distributed in such a way that a small percentage of the quality characteristics always contributes a high percentage of the quality loss o And if you remedy the critical 20% of your quality gaps, you will realize 80% of the benefits. o The first 80% typically includes the first breakthrough in continuous improvement
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Pareto Diagrams
Focus on key problems
Kadang-kadang sebagian besar masalah disebabkan oleh segelintir sebab. Sebagai contoh, 80% dari downtime disebabkan oleh 20% dari mesin; 80% Revenue berasal dari 20% pelanggan. Aturan 80/20 adalah satu cara untuk memprioritaskan usaha supaya tertumpu (fokus) pada apa yang lebih penting.
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Part Cum % Annual # Of Total Usage 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

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Cost Per $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ 98.00 0.79 8.25 0.87 2.00 9.75 0.07 0.26 0.03 10.70
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Annual Cost
Cum Cum % Inv. Ann. Cost Of Total Class 49% 80% 88% 95% 96% 97% 98% 99% 99% 100% A A B B B C C C C C
10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
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5000 395000 10000 75000 5000 1000 125000 30000 250000 600
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$ 490,000 $ 490,000 $ 312,050 $ 802,050 $ 82,500 $ 884,550 $ 65,250 $ 949,800 $ 10,000 $ 959,800 $ 9,750 $ 969,550 $ 8,750 $ 978,300 $ 7,800 $ 986,100 $ 7,500 $ 993,600 $ 6,420 $ 1,000,020
Pareto Diagrams
Focus on key problems Fault A. DRY JOINT B. MISSED COMPONENT C. REVERSED COMPONENT D. ARCING E. OPEN CIRCUIT F. OTHER No. 2 5 8 4 1 3
TOTAL
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23
Pareto Diagrams
Focus on key problems Fault C. REVERSED COMPONENT B. MISSED COMPONENT D. ARCING F. OTHER A. DRY JOINT E. OPEN CIRCUIT No. 8 5 4 3 2 1
TOTAL
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23
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Pareto Diagrams
5 4 3
REVERSED COMPONENT MISSED COMPONENT
2
ARCING OTHER DRY JOINT
1
OPEN CIRCUIT
C
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Pareto Diagrams
Focus on key problems Fault
C. REVERSED COMPONENT B. MISSED COMPONENT D. ARCING F. OTHER A. DRY JOINT E. OPEN CIRCUIT
No.
8 5 4 3 2 1
COST
2 2 5 1 4 6
TOTAL COST
16 10 20 3 8 6
TOTAL
23
63
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Pareto Diagrams
Focus on key problems Fault
D. ARCING C. REVERSED COMPONENT B. MISSED COMPONENT A. DRY JOINT E. OPEN CIRCUIT F. OTHER
No.
4 8 5 2 1 3
COST
5 2 2 4 6 1
TOTAL COST
20 16 10 8 6 3
TOTAL
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23
63
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Pareto Diagrams
20
16 10 8 6
ARCING REVERSED COMPONENT MISSED COMPONENT DRY JOINT OPEN CIRCUIT
3
OTHER
D
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C
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Flowcharts
Picturing the process
Overview Detailed look at flowcharting Real world examples

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Flowcharts
Overview of Flowcharts What is a flowchart? How are they useful?
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Flowcharts
What is a flowchart?
Process Flow Diagram A diagram illustrating the activities of a process One of Ishikawas seven basic tools of quality
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Flowcharts
Brief History
No originator, or father of flowcharts Forms of flowcharts have always been used Give us insight into historical processes
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Flowcharts - Picturing the process

Flowchart Symbols
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Flowcharts
Start/End The terminator symbol marks the starting or ending point of the system. It usually contains the word "Start" or "End."
Action or Process A box can represent a single step ("add two cups of of flour"), or and entire sub-process ("make bread") within a larger process.
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Flowcharts
Document A printed document or report.
Decision A decision or branching point. Lines representing different decisions emerge from different points of the diamond.
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Flowcharts
Input/Output Represents material or information entering or leaving the system, such as customer order (input) or a product (output).
Connector Indicates that the flow continues where a matching symbol (containing the same letter) has been placed.
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Flowcharts
Flow Line Lines indicate the sequence of steps and the direction of flow.
Delay Indicates a delay in the process.

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Flowcharts
Merge Indicates a step where two or more sub-lists or subprocesses become one.
Subroutine Indicates a sequence of actions that perform a specific task embedded within a larger process. This sequence of actions could be described in more detail on a separate flowchart.
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Flowcharts
Manual Loop Indicates a sequence of commands that will continue to repeat until stopped manually.
Data storage Indicates a step where data gets stored.

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Flowcharts
How are they useful?

Create visual maps of a process Help with planning a project Quality improvement tool Identify processes that need improvement Identify unnecessary/ problem steps in a process Good communication tool
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Flowcharts
Common Rules of Flowcharts

Indicate and label all elements of the project Sequence of events is clear No gaps or dead ends Must be logical to the user Use correct symbols
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Flowcharts
Real World Use of Flowcharts Production
Manufacturing Used to identify critical path Accounting Help visualize money flow Services Restaurants Real estate
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Flowcharts
Real World (contd)

Education Curriculum flowcharts Student flow through process Hospitals Patient flow Medical processes
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Flowcharts
Summary :
Valuable and unique quality improvement tool Simple and effective way of visualizing and understanding a process Entire organization has an effect on the flowchart Everyone involved can take part in improving the process
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Scatter Diagrams
Measuring relationships between variables WHAT IS IT? Shows relationship between 2 characteristic values HOW DOES IT RELATE? Number of working years and the salary! The plating time and the plating thickness! Dimensions before and after assembly!
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Scatter Diagrams Measuring relationships between variables

When Scatter Diagram are prepared check the following: Is there any correlation? Are there any abnormally plotted points? Is there a need for stratification?
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Scatter Diagrams
Measuring relationships between variables
Example Exercise :
The rise in temperature in the motor coil of an electric shaver needs to be controlled so it does not exceed 500C. The data shown in the next slide is the results of a survey carried out to find out the relationship between the coil temperature (X) and the surface temperature of the motor case (Y). Collect more then 30 pairs of data to show relationship
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Scatter Diagrams
No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 X 30.6 33.0 33.2 33.5 34.2 34.3 34.7 35.6 35.6 35.7 35.7 35.9 36.0 36.2 36.3 36.4 Y 15.9 20.0 17.7 19.0 22.5 19.9 20.9 20.3 22.9 19.7 21.9 23.7 18.9 21.2 20.5 22.3 No 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 X 37.0 37.1 37.2 37.5 37.5 37.8 37.8 38.3 38.6 38.7 38.8 38.8 38.9 39.2 39.3 39.5 Y 23.2 21.5 22.4 20.1 23.3 21.8 23.0 23.3 22.9 24.5 20.7 21.5 23.1 23.1 23.3 22.0 No 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 X 39.5 40.0 40.3 40.4 40.5 40.5 40.6 41.0 41.2 41.3 41.3 41.8 42.0 42.1 42.8 42.9 Y 24.5 22.0 23.0 20.9 21.3 29.9 25.7 23.7 24.4 22.2 25.7 26.8 25.0 23.1 26.6 25.5 No 49 50 X 43.8 44.5 Y 26.3 26.8
Scatter Diagrams
X-Bar = 38.308 Y = mX + C , and Y-Bar = 22.608 C = Y mX C = 22.608 (0.645*38.308) C = 22.61 24.71 C = - 2.1 The Regression Equation is Y = 0.645X 2.101
m = xy n(x-Bar)(y-Bar) n(x-Bar)(yx -n(x-Bar) n(xr= ______nxy - xy______ = .771 [nx- (x)][ny- (y)]
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Gradient, m = 0.645
See Scatter plot Data file.
Plan
Scatter Diagrams
Regression
Prob(>|t|) Parameter b0 b1 Residual St dev R2 R2(adj) F Prob(>F)
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Est value -2.11 0.65 1.64 0.59 0.59 70.42
St dev 2.96 0.08
t student 0.48 -0.72 0.00 8.39 y = b0 + b1.x1
Y = -2.11 + 0.65X R2 = 0.59 P-Value = 0
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There is a Correlation
Scatter Diagrams
Fitted Line Plot
Y = - 2.114 + 0.6453 X 30.0 27.5 25.0 Y 22.5 20.0 17.5 15.0 30
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S R-Sq R-Sq(adj) 1.64175 59.5% 58.6%
32
34
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36
38 X Act
40
42
44
46
Scatter Diagrams
There is a positive correlation between X and Y. But how good is the correlation??? The value of r = 0.7711 The Regression Model is 59.59 % accurate.
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Scatter Diagrams
Positiv Correlation Positive
5 5 4.5 4.5
Negative Correlation
3.5 150 400 650 5
3.5
No Correlation
150
400
650
An increase in y may depend increas upon an increase in x.
4.5
An decrease in y may depend upon an increase in x.
3.5
Positive Correlation?
150
400
650 5
Negative Correlation?
4.5
There is no demonstrated connection between x and y.
4.5
3.5 150 400 650
3.5 150 400 650
If X is increased, y may also increase.

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If X is increased, y may decrease.
Control Charts
Identifying Sources Of Variations
Control charts are used to monitor, control and improve process performance by focussing on its variation and its cause. The control chart can be thought of as a target. The average line is the bull's-eye and the control limits are the extremes of the target. Control charts are used by taking periodic measurements or observations of products or processes. These results are compared with calculated control limits, and if the limits are exceeded action is taken (and recorded) to bring the process back into control.
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About This Module

Control charts portray process performance and separate causes of variation: Random Assignable Control Chart Systems are: A proven technique for improving productivity Effective in defect prevention Prevent unnecessary process adjustments Provide diagnostic information Provide information about process capability
Six Sigma, A Quest for Process Perfection Meet Goals and Attack Variation
\DataFile\Attribut mtw \DataFile\Variable.mtw Plan Do Check Act
What We Will Learn.

1. Control charts are a powerful tool to hold the gains. 2. How control charts discriminate between common cause and assignable cause variation. 3. Why control charts must be designed to fit the data type and the control purpose.
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Uses of Control Charts

1) Attain a state of statistical control: All subgroup averages and ranges within control limits - no assignable causes of variation present 2) Monitor a process 3) Determine process capability
Jurans Quality Control Handbook, 4th edition, page 24.7
What happens after an out-of-control situation occurs at the core of a successful SPC program?
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General Concepts
w = some characteristic of interest
X W = mean of each sample

Sw = standard deviation of w Upper Control Limit UCL ! X 3S w Centerline =
X
LCL ! X 3S w
Lower Control Limit
Therefore 99.73% of points will be within the control limits unless there is an assignable cause
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Components of a Control Chart

Upper Control Limit
U Chart for Defects

4 UCL=3.794
Sample Count
Center Line
U=1.930
0 0 10 20
LCL=0.06613
Sample Number
Lower Control Limit
How many points do we need to set the initial control limits?

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Control Chart Selection Tree

Type of data
Discrete Variable
Count
Count or Classification
Attribute
No Subgroup >1?
Yes
Fixed
Fixed or variable opportunity?
Variable
Fixed
Fixed or variable opportunity?
Variable
IMR Chart
X Bar and R or X Bar and S
C Chart
U Chart
NP Chart
P Chart
Supplement with EWMA if CTQ is sensitive to small process shifts
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Definitions
Non-conformance (defect) A single instance of a failure to meet some requirement Non-conforming Unit (defective) A single item containing one or more non-conformance
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Types of Attribute Control Charts

c chart: Number of non-conformances in a sample
Use & effectiveness: All subgroups are the same size Effective when the number of non-conformances possible on a unit is large, but the percentage of any single nonconformance is small Example: Surface irregularities, flaws, pinholes on continuous or extensive products such as yarn, wire, paper, textiles or other sheeted materials. The chance of a nonconformance occurring at any one spot is small, but the overall opportunity for non-conformance may be great.*
*Jurans Quality Control Handbook, Fourth Edition
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Types of Attribute Control Charts

u chart: Defects Per Unit (DPU)
Use & effectiveness:
Use when several independent (required) non-conformities may occur in one unit, document, etc. Samples not required to be the same size Example: Complex assembly or document; electronic assembly, purchase order, bill of material, etc.
np chart: Number Non-conforming

Use when direct count of the number of non-conforming in a subgroup is desired. All subgroup sizes must be the same (Juran 24.22).
p chart: Fraction or Proportion Non-conforming

Use to describe a single quality characteristic or two or more characteristics considered collectively. Samples not required to be the same size
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c (Count of Defects) Chart Formulae
!c3 c UCL
Center Line ! c
!c3 c LCL
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u (Defects per Unit) Chart Formulae
u UCL ! u 3 n
Center Line ! u
u LCL ! u 3 n
Plan Do Check Act
np Number Nonconforming Chart Formulae

UCL = n p + 3 n p (1 - p) CL = n p LCL = n p - 3 n p (1 - p)
Plot the number of nonconforming not the percentage of nonconforming. Variable sample sizes are OK.
Plan
Do
Check
Act
P (Proportion Defective) Chart Formulae

p (1 p) UCL ! p 3 n
Center line = p
p (1 p) LCL ! p 3 n
To estimate p ( p) measure 20 - 25 samples calculate the average proportion defective. Use this as a trial p until more data is available. Variable sample sizes are OK.
Plan Do Check Act
C Chart Example File= /Datafiles/Attribut.mtw

Stat>Control Charts>Attribute Charts>C Chart
Plan
Do
Check
Act
The C Chart
C Chart of C Chart Data 1
50
1
Sample Count 40 UCL=34.35 30
20
_ C=20.7
10 LCL=7.05 1 6 11 16 21 26 31 Sample
Worksheet: Attribut.MTW
Data 36 41 6 and 15 were the points 46 result of errors. Replace them with asterisks to indicate missing data then replot.
Plan
Do
Check
Act
The New Chart

C Chart of C Chart Data
35 UCL=32.86 30 Sample Count 25 20 15 10 5 1 6 11 16 21 26 31 Sample 36 41 46 LCL=6.31
_ C=19.58
Worksheet: Attribut.MTW
Plan Do Check Act
The U Chart
Plan
Do
Check
Act
The U Chart
U Chart of Defects found
2.0
Sample Count Per Unit
Note: the control limits changed as the sample size changed.
1.5
UCL=1.439
1.0
_ U=0.763
0.5
0.0 1 3 5 7 9 11 Sample 13 15 17 19
LCL=0.086
Tests performed with unequal sample sizes Worksheet: Attribut.MTW
Plan
Do
Check
Act
The NP Chart
NP charts should be used only when the subgroup size is uniform.
Plan
Do
Check
Act
The NP Chart
40
NP Chart of Batch 1 1 1
30 Sample Count
UCL=30.98
20
__ NP=19.17
10 LCL=7.36
1
0 1 6 11 16 21 26 Sample 31 36 41 46
Worksheet: Attribut.MTW Note: The session window describes the special causes identified on the chart.
Plan Do Check Act
The P Chart
Plan
Do
Check
Act
The P Chart
P Chart of Defectives
0.20
UCL=0.1885
0.15 Proportion
0.10
_ P=0.0955
0.05
0.00 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 Sample 17 19 21 23 25
LCL=0.0026
Tests performed with unequal sample sizes Worksheet: Attribut.MTW
Plan
Do
Check
Act
Control Charts for Variable Data

Much more sensitive than charts for attribute data charts
X bar and R X bar and s
Critical decisions
Sample size - the width of the control limits is inversely proportional to the sample size for any multiple of s Subgroups - chances of differences due to assignable causes within subgroups should be minimized (same operator, shift, head, material etc.)
Plan
Do
Check
Act
X and R Control Chart Formulae & Constants X Control Limits =X A R

2
R Upper Control Limit = D 4 R R Lower Control Limit = D3 R

Sample Size 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Plan Do
A2 1.880 1.023 .729 .577 .483 .419 .373 .337 .308

Check Act
D3 .076 .136 .184 .223
D4 3.267 2.574 2.282 2.114 2.004 1.924 1.864 1.816 1.777
d2 1.128 1.693 2.059 2.326 2.534 2.704 2.847 2.970 3.078
X and s Chart Formulae & X Control Limits = X A1 s Constants

s Upper Control Limit = B4 s s Lower Control Limit = B3 s
N
A1 2.121 1.732 1.500 1.342 1.225
B3 0 0 0 0 .030
B4 3.267 2.568 2.089 2.089 1.970
2 3 4 5 6
Plan
Do
Check
Act
Creating an X-bar and R Chart
Plan
Do
Check
Act
An X-Bar and R Chart

Xbar-R Chart of measure1, ..., measure5
1 1 1 5
41 Sample Mean
UCL=41.294 _ _ X=40.000
40
6
39
1 1 1
6 1
LCL=38.706
38 5 10 15 20 25 Sample
30
35
40
45
4.5 Sample Range
UCL=4.743
3.0 _ R=2.243 1.5
0.0 5 10 15 20 25 Sample 30 35 40 45
LCL=0
Worksheet: Variable.MTW
The numbers show violations of the assumption of control. The nature of the violation is given in the session window.
Plan Do Check Act
StatGuide Interprets the Tests
Plan
Do
Check
Act
Rules of Standard Deviation where the data is?

UCL A 3 Sigma 2 Sigma 1 Sigma 60-75% C B A 1 Sigma 2 Sigma 3 Sigma LCL Time 90-98%
% of Data
99-99.9%
Measured Variable
Plan
B C
Do
Check
Act
Test 1
Test 2
One or more points beyond the 3W limit
2 out of 3 pts > 2 std Dev from the center line (same side)
Plan
Do
Check
Act
Test 3
4 out of 5 pts > 1 Std Dev from the center line (same side) Test 4
8 pts in a row > 1 Std Dev from the center line (either side)
Plan
Do
Check
Act
Test for special causes (pattern) ( For Range Chart )
One or more points beyond the 3W limit
8 pts in a row > 1 Std Dev from the center line (either side)
Plan
Do
Check
Act
Cycle Pattern
* The cycle pattern repeats continuously. * This is an indication of special causes
Plan
Do
Check
Act
* Trend is identified with - Points moving in one direction ( up or down ) - Points does not change direction continuously.
Trends are easily noticeable Trends occurs when more than six points continuously moves upwards or downwards.
Plan
Do
Check
Act
Mixture
Points falling near the UCL or LCL crossing the center line. Mixture pattern contains 2 different types of patterns on the same chart. one falling on the UCL and the other on the LCL. Mixture pattern occurs when 8 points continuously fall on both side of the centerline without any point on Zone C.
Plan
Do
Check
Act
Systematic
Continuously points are alternating up, down, up, down without changes. Points not necessarily alternating only, as long it is moving up and down, it is termed systematic. Systematic pattern is occuring as long as 14 points continuously is alternating up and down.
Plan
Do
Check
Act
Hugging at centerline
All the points distribution comparing with the width between UCL and LCL : Points are distributed at the centerline. No points at UCL and LCL Hugging shows: - There is special causes existing or the process has changed. - Sampling method is not good - Two population existing (Bimodal) Hugging happens if more than 15 points are distributed in Zone C.
Plan
Do
Check
Act
Shewharts concept of variation

Every process has variation; some process exhibits controlled variation , while others exhibits uncontrolled variation - (Walter Shewhart)
Controlled variation exhibits patterned variation characteristic which is stable and consistent against time.
Uncontrolled variation exhibits inconsistent variation which changes against time. This type of variation is not consistent and not stable.
Plan Do Check Act
Causes of Variation
Controlled Variation = Common Causes
We will call any unknown random cause of variation a chance cause or a common cause, the terms are synonymous and will be used as such. If the influence of any particular chance cause is very small, and if the number of chance causes of variation are very large and relatively constant, we have a situation where the variation is predictable within limits. You can see from the definition above, that a system such as this qualifies as a controlled system. Where Dr. Shewhart used the term chance cause, Dr. W. Edwards Deming coined the term common cause to describe the same phenomenon.
Uncontrolled Variation = Special Causes

At times, the variation is caused by a source of variation that is not part of the constant system. These sources of variation were called assignable causes by Shewhart, special causes of variation by Dr. Deming. Experience indicates that special causes of variation can usually be found without undue difficulty, leading to a process that is less variable.
Plan Do Check Act
Common causes Vs Special Causes

Special Causes
Common causes
Breakthrough Improvement
To achieve our goal, which will we concentrate, common causes or special causes?
Plan
Do
Check
Act
Intuitive SPC -Case Study 1

~The factory scrap level is at a year low of 2% ~Manager presents an award to the plant ~Ceremony in the cafeteria:Pizza and refreshment for all! ~Everyone should be proud of what you have accomplished
0.03 0.02 0.01
Complains per million units
Party Time
A
Plan Do Check Act
Year 1

~Three consecutive months of scrap increases ~Manager wishes he could take back the award. ~Instead of holding the gains, scrap went right back up ~Manager decides:"This group just needs tough management
0.03 0.02 0.01
Manager wants to take back the award
J F
J J
Plan Do Check Act
Year 1

~ Scrap rises to a value of 2.6% ~ Manager decides to take action. ~ A "special meeting" is called to solve this problem once and for all. ~ After a sound lecture on the importance of scrap, the manager leaves. Employees aren't sure what to do. ~ Besides, they have other metrics which have more importance. So they do nothing.
0.03 0.02 0.01
Scrap is highest this year. Action needed!!!
J F
J J A S O
Plan Do Check Act
Year 1

~Manager has seen reduced scrap levels since the end of last year. "Things are looking - up!" (Although nothing had been done to change the system) ~His takeaway: "A tough management style gets results"
0.03 0.02 0.01
Manager Conclude: Tough management style gets results J F M

Plan
M
Do
J J A SONDJ F M A
Check Act
Year 1
Year 2

In this excercise, whats your opinion with regards to the Managers action? Is the Managers action valid? Is the Managers action fruitful? Kalau dilihat mengunakan control chart, bagaimana rupanya?
Plan
Do
Check
Act
Manager: "Hey, I made my decision based on data - How can I go wrong ?" Black Belt: "Your decisions were made from observing high and low points as signals. When in reality, it was all noise. Look at the data, there was no significant change in the process."
Control Chart shows the VOP
0.03 0.02 0.01
UCL
LCL
J F
Plan Do
J J A SONDJ F M A
Act
Year 1
Check
Year 2
Pokerchip Excercise
(1) Take sample from process Pokerchip once an hour, total sample is 5 each time. Obtain data from Normal distribution with mean = 100 and stdev = 10. (2) Continue collecting sample until 15 samples are obtained. (3) Enter data into XBar-R Chart dan estimate: - Mean Sample Xbar-Bar - Range Sample Rbar - Stdev Sample X bar (4) Save data into file Pokerchip.excel.
Plan
Do
Check
Act
This Tool Is Given Free
Pokerchip Excercise
x-bar-bar 98.98 UCL 111.8
R-bar UCL LCL
22.23 47.02 0
s-bar UCL LCL
8.976 18.75 0
LCL 86.16
Plan
Do
Check
Act
Excercise:
Open file Tensile_Strength. Plot Xbar / R chart for Strength. An Engineer who has 10 years experience in the process says he face no problem with the process. Do you belief what he is saying? Analyze the control chart that has been plotted.
Plan
Do
Check
Act
Tensile Strength X-Bar R Chart

Xbar-R Chart of Strength
1 1 1 1 1 5 1 1 1 1 1
58 Sample M ean 56 54 52 50 1 3 5
1 5
8 1 1 1 1
_ C L=55.803 U _ X=55.093 LC L=54.382
1 1
11
13 Sample
15
17
19
21
23
25
8 6 4 2 0 1 3 5 7 9 11
1 1
Sample Range
U C L=2.605 _ R=1.232
2
LC L=0 23 25
13 Sample
15
17
19
21
Plan
Do
Check
Act
Does the process has problems? Is the process in-control?
Control Chart for Batch process

Range chart shows variation within batch. However, X bar R chart is not suitable. X bar chart only uses variation within batch for determining control limit. This assumption when variation between batch can be ignored (negligible). Generally, variation between batach is greater than variation within batch. For batch process, the type of control chart is IMR-R chart; where every mean sample is expected an individual value.
Batch 1 X-Bar, R
Plan Do Check Act
Batch 2 X-Bar, R
Batch 3 X-Bar, R
I-MR-R Charts
I-Chart CL = X UCL = X + 2.66 MR LCL = X 2.66 MR MR Chart CL = MR UCL = D4 MR LCL = D3 MR Range Chart CL = R UCL = D4 R LCL = D3 R
Plan Do Check Act
(D4 dan D3 when n=2, because MR is range between 2 continuous measurement)
I-MR-R Chart Output

I-MR-R/S (Between/Within) Chart of Strength
UCL=61.61 60 Subgroup Mean _ X=55.09
55
50 LCL=48.57
Batch mean Batch-to-Batch variation Variation within Batch

MR of Subgroup Mean 8
11
13
15
17
19
21
23
25 UCL=8.010
4 __ MR=2.452 0 1 8 3 5 7 9 11
1 1 1
LCL=0 13 15 17 19 21 23 25
Sam ple Range
4 UCL=2.605 _ R=1.232 0 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 Sample 15 17 19

2
LCL=0 23 25
21
Plan
Do
Check
Act
Comparison between Xbar chart dan I-MR chart for mean sample
Xbar-R Chart of Strength
1 1 1 1 1 6 6 1 1
58 Sample Mean 56 54 52 50 1 3 5
U C L=56.361 _ _ X=55.093 LC L=53.825
1 1
1 1
1 1
11
13 Sample
15
17
19
21
23
25
Control limit only depicts variation within batch. Subgroup Mean
8 Sample Range 6 4
1
I-MR-R/S (Between/Within) Chart of Strength

UCL=61.61 S b rou M u g p ean 60
U C L=4.647
_ X=55.09 _ R=2.198 2
55
2 0
1 2 2 21 2 2 23
50 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19
LC L=0
25
LCL=48.57
11
M of S bg p M R u rou ean
13 Sample
15
17
19
21
23
25
UCL=8.010
Control limit depicts variation between and within batch
4 __ MR=2.452 0 1 8 3 5 7 9 11
1 1 1
LCL=0 13 15 17 19 21 23 25
S amp Rang le e
4 UCL=2.605 _ R=1.232 0
Plan 1
Do 5
Check 11 9
13 Sample
Act
LCL=0 23 25
15
17
19
21
CONTROL CHART FOR INDIVIDUAL DATA.

Sometimes, we are forced to use one measurement only (compared with taking one sample containing more than one measurement). (Jumlah sample n = 1) This happens when, - measurement is expensive Example : Test destroying the product (destructive test) - Measurement obtained from standard sources. Example : pH measurement for chemical mixture
Based on total Sample n = 1

Plan Do Check Act
I MR Control Charts
I CHART Centre Line = X Upper Control Limit = X + 2.66 MR Lower Control Limit = X - 2.66 MR MR CHART Centre Line = MR Upper Control Limit = 3.27 MR Lower Control Limit = None
Plan Do Check Act
Sample X MR 1 4 ... 2 4 ... 0 3 3.3 ... 0.7 4 4.7 ... 1.4 5 5.3 ... 0.6
Print Chart
140.00
X Chart
Return To Data Entry Screen
120.00
100.00
X Value
80.00
Pokerchip UCL X LCL X
60.00
Data Mean
40.00
This Tool is Given Free

20.00
0.00 1 4 7 10 13 16 19 22 25 28 31 34 37 40 43 46 49 52 55 58 61 64 67 70 73 Batch Number
Print Chart
Moving Range Control Chart
Return To Data Entry Screen
40 35
This Tool is Given Free

30 25 MR Value 20 15 10 5 0 1 5 9 13 17 21 25 29 33 37 41 45 49 53 57 61 65 69 73 Batch Number Moving Range UCL MR LCL MR MR Mean
END 7 QC Tools

QCC & 7qc Tools

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QCC & 7 Quality Control Tools For Problem Solvings

MODULE 1 UNDERSTANDING QC CIRCLE

What is a Quality Circle?

How Do Quality Circles Work?

How Do Quality Circles Work?

How Can They be Used in an Organization?

How Can They be Used in an Organization?

Problems with Quality Circles

MODULE 2 DATA COLLECTION

Completeness Consistency Accuracy Homogeneity

Mean Median Mode Standard deviation

ANALYSIS OF DATA The data: 4,5,5,4,8,4,3,7.

Mean Median Mode Standard deviation Range

= 3,4,4,4,5,5,7,8 = 4 (Most Frequently Occurring Number)

ANALYSIS OF DATA The data: 4,5,5,4,8,4,3,7. Standard deviation = 1.69

Range = Max Min =83=5

The Basic 7 Quality Tools.

Where did the Basic Seven come from?

Bad Solder Joints

Terminals Flux Stripping Solder Wire Gauge

Bad Solder Joints

Terminals Flux Stripping Solder Wire Gauge

Fishbone On thisDiagrams the causes have been diagram, three of highlighted.

CAUSE & EFFECT DIAGRAM - Example

WORKSHOP & PRESENTATION

Depicted by a bell-shaped curve

Plan Do Check Act

This tool is given free

Compute the -Mean -Median -Standard Deviation -Range

PARETO DIAGRAM The 80/20 Principle :

The 80/20 Thinking & Analysis

The 80/20 Principle, as applied to Quality Management

Why The 80/20 Principle Is So Important ?

80/20 As Applied To Daily Life

80/20 Thinking Is Reflective

80/20 Thinking Is Reflective

80/20 Insights For Individuals

80/20 As It Applies To Business

Part Cum % Annual # Of Total Usage 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

This tool is given free

This tool is given free

Overview Detailed look at flowcharting Real world examples

Overview of Flowcharts What is a flowchart? How are they useful?

Flowcharts - Picturing the process

Document A printed document or report.

Delay Indicates a delay in the process.

Data storage Indicates a step where data gets stored.

How are they useful?

Common Rules of Flowcharts

Real World Use of Flowcharts Production

Picturing the process

Real World (contd)

Scatter Diagrams Measuring relationships between variables

See Scatter plot Data file.

Est value -2.11 0.65 1.64 0.59 0.59 70.42

St dev 2.96 0.08

t student 0.48 -0.72 0.00 8.39 y = b0 + b1.x1

Y = -2.11 + 0.65X R2 = 0.59 P-Value = 0

3.5 150 400 650 5

An increase in y may depend increas upon an increase in x.

An decrease in y may depend upon an increase in x.

There is no demonstrated connection between x and y.