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Biliary disorder
Gallbladder cholelithiasis cholecystitis Pancreas pancreatitis
Gallbladder
The gallbladder is a small, pear-shaped pouch that lies beneath the liver, in the upper abdomen. It stores bile. This fluid, produced by the liver, helps digest fat. The gallbladder releases bile into the small intestine through the bile duct. This thin tube connects the liver and gallbladder to the small intestine.
Cholelithiasis
The presence of calculi in the gallbladder Form in the gallbladder from the solid constituents of bile vary in size, shape and compositions. Incidence US (man 10% , women 20% by age 65 years old.
Cholelithiasis
Pathophysiology
Obesity, high-calorie, high cholesterol diet and drug that lower serum cholesterol level. Bile is supersaturated with cholestrol Precipitate out to form stones
Cholecystitis
Inflammation of the gallbladder It can be.. Acute Cholecystitis Chronic cholecystitis
Acute Cholecystitis
Pathophysiology Obstruction of the cystic duct by a stone. The obstruction increase pressure within the gallbladder, leading to ischemia of gallbladder wall and mucosa.
Acute Cholecystitis
Clinical Manifestation: Begin with an attack of biliary colic. Pain right upper quadran (RUQ), and may radiate to back, right scapula, or shoulder. Movement or deep breathing may aggravate pain. The pain usually last longer than biliary colic, continuing for 12-18 hours. Anorexia, nausea, and vomiting, fever accompanied by chill.
Chronic Cholecystitis
Asymptomatic May result from repeated bouts of acute cholecystitis or from persistent irritation of the gallbladder wall by stones. Bacteria may be present in the bile as well.
Complication of cholecystitis
Empyema a collection of infected fluid within the gallbladder. Gangrene and perforation with resulting peritonitis or abscess formation. Formation of a fistula into an adjacent organ, eg: duodenum, colon, or stomach. Obstruction of the small intestine by a large gallstone
Management
Nutritional and supportive therapy
Limit dietary fat intake If bile flow is obstructed, fat soluble vitamins (A,D,E and K) and bile salts may need to be administered.
Pharmacologic therapy
Management
Nutritional and supportive therapy Pharmacologic therapy Nonsurgical removal of gallstones i) dissolving gallstones ii) Stone removal by instrumentation iii) Extracorpeal shock-wave Lithotripsy iv) Intracorpeal Lithotripsy
Surgical management
i) Preoperatives measures ii) Laparoscopic cholecystectomy iii) Cholecystectomy iv) Choledochostomy v) Surgical cholecystostomy vi) Percutaneous cholecystostomy
Cholecystectomy
Cont..
3. Insert nasogastric tube and connect to low suction if ordered, withold oral food and fluids during episodes of acute pain. Emptying the stomach reduces the amount of chyme entering the duodenum and the stimulus for gallbladder contraction, thus reducing pain. 4. Administer morphine, meperidine, or other narcotic analgesia as ordered. Recent research indicates that morphine is no more likely to cause spasms of the sphincter of Oddi than meriperidine.
Cont..
5. Place in fowler s position decreases pressure on the inflamed gallbladder. 6. Monitor vital signs, including temperature, at least every 4 hours. Bacterial infection often is present in acute cholecystitis, and may cause an elevated temperature and respiratory rate.
Cont
3. Measure and record intake and output.
Cont...
Ensure patency and avoid stress on the tube; carefully and avoid stress on the tube; carefully position after dressing and changed. Use measures to control infection. Note character and amount of drainage. Clamp and release regimen as initial step in preparation for T-tube removal 2. Prevent wound infection (patienst are often obese and may have delayed healing)
Cont...
3. Observe for indications of biliary obstruction, such as clay-colored stool, jaundiced sclera and/ or skin. 4. Advise patient to remain on low-fat, highcarbohydrate, high-protein diet for at least 2-3 months. Also avoid alcohol and gas-forming foods.
Pancreatitis
Inflammation of the pancreas i) Acute pancreatitis ii) Chronic pancreatitis
PANCREATITIS
Pancreas
Acute pancreatitis
80% -cause by alcohol and gallstone. Characterized by edema and inflammation confined to the pancrease Minimal organ dysfunction is present Pathophysiology : self digestion ( cautodigestion) of the pancreas by its own enzymes trypsin. Long term use of alcohol is commonly associated with acute pacreatitis
Clinical manifestation
1. Severe abdomen pain ( typically at mid epigastrium) Onset : 24 48 hours after heavy meal or alcohol ingestion Unrelieved by antacids Ecchymoses in the flank or around the umbilicus may indicate severe pancreatitis.
Cont..
2. Nausea and vomiting 3. Fever 4. Jaundice 5. Mental confusion 6. Agitation
Cont..
Hematocrit and hemoglobin levels are used to monitor Stools bulky, pale and foul smelling 3. X- ray : abdomen and chest 4. Ultrasound
Medical management
To relieve symptoms and prevent complication All oral intake withhold to inhibit pancreatic stimulation and secretion of pancreatic enzymes Parenteral nutrition part of therapy Nasogastric suction to relieve nausea and vomiting, to decrease of painful abdominal distention, to remove HCl so that it does not enter the duodenum and stimulate pancreas.
Cont....
Administer medications. 1. Synthetic analgesic for pain - avoid opiates - may cause spasm. 2. Anticholinergics (Pro-Banthine) to suppress vagal stimulation. 3. Sodiam bicarbonate to reverse metabolic acidosis. 4. Histamin H2 antagonist ( cimetidin (tagamet), ranitidine (zantac) may be given to neutralize HCL secreation and decrease pancreatic activity by inhibit HCL secretion.
Cont..
Biliary drainage placement of biliary drain and stents in the pancreatic duct through endoscopy . Surgical intervention often risky. May be diagnostic laparotomy to establish pancreatic drainage, to resect necrosis pancreas.
Nursing Intervention
Relieve pain and discomfort NG tube with continuos low pressure suction, drugs Mepiredine ( Demerol) . Improving breathing pattern - Aggressive respiratory care to prevent acute respiratory distress syndrom (ARDS) Improving nutritional status Improving skin integrity Monitor and managing potential complication -
Monitor glucose levels with blood tests - may give regular insulin to treat hyperglycemia. Measure and record intake and output maintain fluids and electrolytes. -hypocalcaemia - treated with calcium gluconate IV. -hypokalemia - treated with potassium. -Hypomagnesemia treated with magnesium - can be life- threating.
Chronic Pancreatitis
Definition: Gland is fibrosed and ducts are obstructed following repeated attacks of acute pancreatitis.
Chronic pancreatitis
Characterized by progressive anatomic and functional destruction of the pancreas. Alcohol consumption and malnutrition are major causes of chronic pancreatitis. Excessive and prolonged consumption of alcohol 70 % of the cases.
Clinical manifestations
1. Pain -persistent epigastric and left upper quadrant. .Severe pain at upper abdominal and back. Attacks so painful opiods in large doses do not relief. 2. Anorexia, nausea, vomiting and constipation. More than 75% patients weight loss, cause of anorexia and fear meal will precipitate another attack.
Cont....
3 Disturbance of protein and fat digestion, malnutrition, weight loss, abdominal distention, foul, fatty stool cause by decrease in pancreatic enzyme secreation.. Malabsorbtion digestion of fat and protein impaired.> foul smelling stools with high fat content (statorrhea)
Medical management
Non surgical management 1. Abdominal pain and discomfort non opiods methods. Emphasize patients to avoid alcohol and foods tend to produce adominal pain and discomfort. 2. Endoscopy i) to remove pancreatic duct stones ii) stent stricture> to relieve pain and obstruction
Surgical management 1.Pancreaticojejunostomy ( Roux-en Y) side to side anastomosis of the pancreatic duct to the jejunum > allows pancreatic secretion into jejunum 2.Pancreaticoduodenostomy ( Whipple resection)
Nursing Care
1. Provide low-protein, low fat, high -carbohydrate, bland diet. 2. Monitor any diabetic symstoms; insulin may be given; monitor blood glucose levels. 3. Monitor for potential complications - ascites, pleural effusion, GI hemorrhage, biliary tract obstruction
Cont...
Administer medications. 1. Antacid (Maalox) to neutralize acid secretions. 2. Histamine antagonist 3. Proton-pump inhibitors (Prilosec) to neutralize gastric acid. 4. Anticholinergics (atropine, pro-Banthine) to decrease vagal stimulation. 5. Pancratic enzyme replacements (viokase, pancrelipase) with meals to aid digestin. 6. Narcotic analgesics used for pain.