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Machine Tools
Specialization: GPM-Lathe, Shaper etc. SPM-Gear cutting m/c. Surface Produced: Cylindrical & Flat Motion: Reciprocatory type m/c tools. Rotary type of m/c tools. Automation: Manual Control, Semi-Automatic, Automatic. Duty Cycle: Light, Medium, Heavy Energy Used: Conventional, Non-conventional
Machined Surface
Cutting processes
Why do we study cutting physics? Product quality: surface, tolerance Productivity: MRR , Tool wear Physics of cutting Mechanics Force, power Tool materials Design for manufacturing
Cutting Tools
Cutting tools may be classified according to the number of major cutting edges (points) involved as follows: Single point: e.g., turning tools, shaping, planning and slotting tools and boring tools Double (two) point: e.g., drills Multipoint (more than two): e.g., milling cutters, broaching tools, hobs, gear shaping cutters etc.
Cutting Tools
Rake angles
Clearance angles
Types of Chips
Continuous chips
Ductile material
Ex: Mild steel, Al
Types of Chips
Built Up Edge (BUE)
Some of the cut material will attach to the cutting point. This tends to cause the cut to be deeper than the tip of the cutting tool and degrades surface finish. Also, periodically the built up edge will break off and remove some of the cutting tool. Thus, tool life is reduced.
Types of Chips
Built Up Edge (BUE)
built up edge can be reduced by: Increasing cutting speed Decreasing feed rate Increasing rake angle Reducing friction (by applying cutting fluid)
Cutting Forces
Externally applied forces
Cutting Forces
Merchants theory
t2
t1 Fco R
Fs
Ft Fn
( ) friction angle Fn
Fc
Cutting Forces
As we know tool has two elements E ( rake angle) and clearance or relief angle. Lets define t1= chip thickness prior to chip formation (depth of cut). t2= increased chip thickness along shear plane. r = cutting ratio (which is important when calculating cutting conditions). J = shear plane angle in orthogonal cutting model.
t2
t1
Cutting Forces
r = t1/t2 Chip thickness after cut always greater than before, so chip ratio r always less than 1.0 Determining Shear Plane Angle Based on the geometric parameters of the orthogonal model, the shear plane angle can be determined as: tan =r cos /1-r sin
t2
t1
Cutting Forces
1/r = chip compression ratio (Measure of how thick the chip has become compared to the depth of cut) t1 is defined as depth of cut, but in turning operation it corresponds to feed. Practically we measure chip thickness by using micrometer or dial caliper. From those values we calculate r, since we already know the rake angle we can easily calculate J, and also shear strain (K). We know X = G. K (shear stress) where G = modulus of rigidity K = shear strain (angle in radians) Remember W=P/A (axial stress) P=axial force, A=area W= E.I, E=modulus of elasticity I=(L/L , L=original length, (L=deformation
Cutting Forces
Force relationship F=Friction force N=Normal force =coefficient of friction =F/N R=Resultant force Fs=Shear force Fn=Normal to shear force X =Shear stress= Fs /As As =Area of the shear plane As = to . w/SinJ W =Average normal stress=Fn/As R=Resultant force For equilibrium R=R and angR= -ang R These forces can not be measured, but they can be calculated Q
Cutting Forces
Force and energy dissipated (continue...)
Measured forces Fc= Cutting force (measured by dynometers or force transducers, or by calculating power consumption that occurs during cutting) Fc supplies the energy required for the cutting. Ft= Thrust force Ft important to know to keep the work part and the machine stiff. F= Fc . Sin E+Ft . Cos E N= Fc .Cos E - Ft . Sin E Fs = Fc . Cos J - Ft . Sin J Fn = Fc . Sin J + Ft . Cos J
Cutting Forces
Merchant Equation From X = Fs /As = (Fc . Cos J - Ft . Sin J )/ ( to . w/SinJ) Work material will select a shear plane angle that minimizes the the energy. Therefore, take the derivative of X w.r.t J, equate it to 0, the result is Merchants euation. J= 45+(E/2)-( /2) Results: As E increases, J increases. As decreases, J increases. If J increases, then the area decreases so Fs, therefore machining becomes easier to perform.
Tool Wear
Definition: The change of shape of the tool from its original shape, during cutting, resulting from the gradual loss of tool material . Objectives: Study the general characteristics of tool wear. Understand the causes of tool wear and their consequences. Set up the tool failure criteria and understand the meaning of tool-life.
Tool Wear
Introduction: Cutting tools are subjected to an extremely severe rubbing process. They are in metal-to-metal contact between the chip and work piece, under conditions of very high stress at high temperature. The situation is further aggravated (worsened) due to the existence of extreme stress and temperature gradients near the surface of the tool. However, wear occurs during the cutting action, and it will ultimately result in the failure of the cutting tool.
Tool Wear
Tool wear phenomenon: The high contact stress between the tool rake-face and the chip causes severe friction at the rake face, as well, there is friction between the flank and the machined surface. The result is a variety of wear patterns and scars which can be observed at the rake face and the flank face Crater wear ,Flank wear, Notch wear, Chipping ,Ultimate wear
Tool Wear
Rake Face Wear
Crater wear: The chip flows across the rake face, resulting in severe friction between the chip and rake face, and leaves a scar on the rake face which usually parallels to the major cutting edge. The crater wear can increase the working rake angle and reduce the cutting force, but it will also weaken the strength of the cutting edge. The crater depth KT is the most commonly used parameter in evaluating the rake face wear.
Tool Wear
Tool Wear
Flank Wear (Clearance Surface) Wear on the flank (relief) face is called Flank wear and results in the formation of a wear land. Wear land formation is not always uniform along the major and minor cutting edges of the tool. Results from abrasive wear of the cutting edge against the machined surface. Monitored in production by examining the tool or by tracking the change in size of the tool or machined part. Measured by using the average and maximum wear land size VB and VB max.
Tool Wear
Typical stages of tool wear in normal cutting
1.
Initial (or Preliminary) wear region: Caused by micro-cracking, surface oxidation and carbon loss layer. Small contact area and high contact pressure will result in high wear rate. The initial wear size is VB=0.050.1mm normally. 2. Steady wear region The micro-roughness is improved, in this region the wear size is proportional to the cutting time. The wear rate is relatively constant.
Tool Wear
Typical stages of tool wear in normal cutting (Continued.)
3. Severe (or Ultimate or catastrophic) wear: When the wear size increases to a critical value, the surface roughness of the machined surface decreases, cutting force and temperature increase rapidly, and the wear rate increases. Flank wear and chipping will increase the friction, so that the total cutting force will increase. The component surface roughness will be increased, especially when chipping occurs. Flank wear will also affect the component dimensional accuracy.
Tool Wear
Notch Wear: Special type of combined flank and rake face wear which occurs adjacent to the point where the major cutting edge intersects the work surface. The gashing (or grooving, gouging) at the outer edge of the wear land is an indication of a hard or abrasive skin on the work material
Tool Wear
Chipping: Involves removal of relatively large discrete particles of tool material. Ultimate Failure: The final result of tool wear is the complete removal of the cutting point - ultimate failure of the tool. This may come about by temperature rise. An alternative mechanism of ultimate failure is the mechanical failure (usually a brittle fracture) of a relatively large portion of the cutting tip. Ultimate failure by melting and plastic flow is most common in carbon and high-speed-steel tools. Fracture failures are most common in sintered carbide or ceramic tools.
Tool Wear
Causes of Tool Wear
Hard Particle Wear( Abrasive Wear) Caused by the impurities within the work piece material, such as carbon, nitride and oxide compounds, as well as the built-up fragments. This is a mechanical wear, and it is the main cause of the tool wear at low cutting speeds. Adhesive Wear Due to the high pressure and temperature, welding occurs between the fresh surface of the chip and rake face (chip rubbing on the rake face results in a chemically clean surface). Diffusion Wear Diffusion results in changes of the tool and work piece chemical composition. Chemical Wear Corrosive wear (due to chemical attack of a surface) Fracture Wear Fracture can be the catastrophic end of the cutting edge. Chipping of brittle surfaces
Tool Wear
EFFECTS OF THE TOOL WEAR ON TECHNOLOGICAL PERFORMANCE MEASURES.
Increase the cutting force; Increase the surface roughness; Decrease the dimensional accuracy; Increase the temperature; Vibration; Lower the production efficiency, component quality; Increase the cost.
Tool Life
Tool life is the time a tool can be reliably be used for cutting before it must be discarded/repaired . Some tools, such as lathe bits are regularly reground after use . Assessment of tool life For R & D purposes, tool life is always assessed or expressed by span of machining time in minutes, whereas, in industries besides machining time in minutes some other means are also used to assess tool life, depending upon the situation, such as no. of pieces of work machined total volume of material removed total length of cut.
Tool Life
Measurement of tool wear The various methods are : i) By loss of tool material in volume or weight, in one life time this method is generally applicable for critical tools like grinding wheels. ii) By grooving and indentation method in this approximate method wear depth is measured indirectly by the difference in length of the groove or the indentation outside and inside the worn area. iii) Using optical microscope fitted with micrometer very common and effective method. iv) Using scanning electron microscope (SEM) used generally, for detailed study; both qualitative and quantitative. v) Talysurf, specially for shallow crater wear.
Tool Life
Taylors tool life equation tool life of any tool for any work material is governed mainly by cutting velocity, (VC), feed, (so) and depth of cut (t). Cutting velocity affects maximum and depth of cut minimum. The usual pattern of growth of cutting tool wear (mainly VB=0.3mm), principle of assessing tool life and its dependence on cutting velocity are schematically shown in Fig .
Tool Life
Tool Life
If the tool lives, T1, T2, T3, T4 etc are plotted against the corresponding cutting velocities, V1, V2, V3, V4 etc as shown in Fig., a smooth curve like a rectangular hyperbola is found to appear.
Tool Life
When F. W. Taylor plotted the same figure taking both V and T in log-scale, a more distinct linear relationship appeared as schematically shown in Fig. With the slope n and intercept c, Taylor derived the simple equation as VTn = C where, n is called, Taylors tool life exponent. The values of both n and c depend mainly upon the tool-work materials and the cutting environment (cutting fluid application). The value of C depends also on the limiting value of VB undertaken ( i.e., 0.3 mm, 0.4 mm, 0.6 mm etc.)
Tool Life
Example of use of Taylors tool life equation Problem : If in turning of a steel rod by a given cutting tool (material and geometry) at a given machining condition (so and t) under a given environment (cutting fluid application), the tool life decreases from 80 min to 20 min. due to increase in cutting velocity, VC from 60 m/min to 120 m/min., then at what cutting velocity the life of that tool under the same condition and environment will be 40 min.? Solution : Assuming Taylors tool life equation, VT n = C V1T1n = V2T2 n= V3T3 n= ................. = C Here, V1 = 60 m/min; T1 = 80 min.,V2 = 120 m/min; T2 = 20 min. V3 = ? (to be determined); T3 = 40 min. Taking, V1T1n = V2T2 n
Tool Life
Machinability
Machinability has been introduced for gradation of work materials w.r.t. machining characteristics. Machinability can be described in several ways such as: It is generally applied to the machining properties of work material. It refers to material (work) response to machining. It is the ability of the work material to be machined. It indicates how easily and fast a material can be machined.
Machinability
Attempts were made to measure or quantify machinability and it was done mostly in terms of tool life which substantially influences productivity and economy in machining magnitude of cutting forces which affects power consumption and dimensional accuracy surface finish which plays role on performance and service life of the product.
Machinability
Machinability rating (MR): The relative machining response of the work materials compared to that of a standard metal was tried to be evaluated quantitatively only based on tool life (VB* = 0.33 mm)
Machinability
Machinability
Variables and factors involved in machining such as, (a) properties of the work material. (b) cutting tool; material and geometry. (c) levels of the process parameters. (d) machining environments (cutting fluid application etc) Machinability characteristics of any work tool pair may also be further affected by, strength, rigidity and stability of the machine. kind of machining operations done in a given machine tool. functional aspects of the special techniques, if employed.
Tungsten Carbide was first synthesized in 1890. Took 3 decades before we got Cemented carbide First used in Germany Sintering technology was invented
Figure: Relative time required to machine with various cutting-tool materials, indicating the year the tool materials were first introduced. Note that machining time has been reduced by two orders of magnitude with a hundred years. Source: Courtesy of Sandvik.
Surface hardening
Carburizing Nitriding Carbonitriding Chromizing and Boronizing