Introduction to Transistors

Presented: October 23, 2001

Chris Green Carl Hanna Ancil Marshall Kwame Ofori

Overview

Introduction & History Semiconductors Operation of Transistors Transistor Types Applications Examples Questions Conclusion

Background

Invented at Bell Laboratories in 1947. John Bardeen, Walter Brattain, and William Schockly received Nobel Prize in Physics in 1956 for Inventing Transistors. First application: telephone signal amplification Replaced cumbersome and inefficient vacuum tubes Transistors can now be found on a single silicon wafer in most common electronic devices

Background
Model of First Transistor

What are Transistors?

Versatile three lead semiconductor devices whose applications include electronic switching and modulation (amplification) Transistors are miniature electronic switches. Configuration of circuit determines whether the transistor will serve a switch and amplifier

Building blocks of the microprocessor, which is the brain of the computer.

Have two operating positions- on and off. Binary functionality of transistors enables the processing of information in a computer.

Semiconductors

Silicon

Basic building material of most integrated circuits Has four valence electrons, which allow it to form four covalent bonds.

Silicon crystal is an insulator-- no free electrons.

Semiconductors

Resistance to current flow in the silicon crystal is reduced by adding small amounts of foreign impurities, which is referred to as doping. Doping transforms a silicon crystal from a good insulator into a viable conductor; hence, the name semiconductor.

Semiconductors

Two Dopant Types

N-type (Negative) Free flowing electrons are added to the silicon crystal structure.

Examples include Group V elements including Phosphorous, Arsenic, and Antimony.

P-type(Positive)- Lack electrons and serve as potential slots for migrating electrons.

Examples include Group III elements such as Boron, Aluminum, and Gallium

Comparison of Energy Bands

Semiconductor resembles an insulator, but with a smaller energy band. Small energy band makes it a marginal conductor

Simple Semiconductors: Diodes

Diode is the simplest semiconductor. Allows current to flow in one direction only.

Diode Sign Conventions

Power dissipated by a load = (+) quantity Current flows from (+) (-) Forward Biased

Supplied Current flows with natural (hole) diffusion current Supplied Current fights against natural diffusion (hole) current and diode orientation

Reversed Biased

Forward-Bias Example

Charge Diffusion aided by Supply Current Current is allowed through easily

P-N Junction (Depletion Region / Offset voltage = 0.7V) + -++ p n + -(positive charges +++ (negative charges Dominate) ++ dominate) -+++ Diode Electric Field Supplied Current Diffusion (hole) Current

Reverse-Bias Example

Charges cannot diffuse unless supplied current flows towards n

(Depletion Region) + -++ p + -(positive charges +++ Dominate) ++ -+++

n (negative charges dominate)

Diode Electric Field Supplied Current Diffusion (hole) Cuurent

Diodes States

Forward biased (on)Current flows

Real: Need about 0.7 V to initiate electron-hole combination process.

Reversed biased (off)Diode blocks current

Ideal- Current flow = 0 Real : Iflow= 10-6 Amps

Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJT)

collector collector

Three Layers in a BJT

Collector Base (very thin)

has fewer doping atoms

base i

Emitter

P+

n+

Two Types of BJTs PNP (figure on left)

operates with outgoing base current

emitter

emitter

NPN (figure on right)

operates with incoming base current

BJT Schematic Representation

collector
iB
p

base i

n P+

Corresponds to:

emitter collector

Corresponds to:

n+

emitter

BJT Operation Characteristics

IC vs. VCE graph allows us to determine operating region. Works for any IB or VCE VBE tops out around ~0.7V

BJT Operation Regions

Operation Region
Cutoff Saturation

IB or VCE Char. IB = Very

small

BC and BE Junctions
Reverse & Reverse Forward & Forward

Mode
Open Switch Closed Switch

VCE = Small

Active Linear

VCE =

Moderate

Reverse & Forward Beyond Limits

Linear Amplifier Overload

Break-down VCE = Large

Cutoff NPN BJT

Collector current C

V2 Base current B

n Reverse Biased

+++

p Reverse biased

V1

Emitter current E

Saturated NPN BJT

Collector current C

V2 Base current B

----

Forward biased

++

V1

Forward biased

Emitter current E

Active Linear NPN BJT

Collector current C

V2 Base current B

---

--++
p

Reverse Biased

--n

Forward biased

V1

Emitter current E

Possible Uses for BJTs

Can act as Signal Current Switch (Cutoff Mode) Can act as Current Amplifier (Active Region)

Where:

I c I B

Beta = intrinsic amp property (20 - 200)

FIELD-EFFECT TRANSISTORS
( BACKGROUND )

In 1925, the fundamental principle of FET transistors was establish by Lilienfield. In 1955, the first successful FET was made. Types of Transistors MOSFET (metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistors)

JEFT (Junction Field-effect transistors)

MOSFET

(Types)

Four types:

n-channel enhancement mode

Most common since it is cheapest to manufacture

p-channel enhancement mode n-channel depletion mode p-channel depletion mode

n-channel p-channel Depletion type

n-channel p-channel Enhancement type

MOSFET

(n-channel Enhancement-Mode)

Device Structure

Three terminals

Gate, Drain, and Source

Analogous respectively to the base, collector, and emitter.

Substrate electrically connected to the source.

MOSFET

(n-channel Enhancement-Mode)

Device Structure

Substrate, source connected to ground

The drain-body n+p junction is reverse-biased. The body-source pn+ junction is reverse-biased.

Enhancement MOSFET acts as an open circuit with no gate voltage.

n-channel Enhancement Mode

(Regions of operation)

Cutoff region

VGS < VT.

IDS

Cutoff region

VGS VT

Characteristic Curve

n-channel Enhancement Mode

(Regions of operation)

Ohmic region

VDS < 0.25 (VGS-VT), VGS>VT Voltage controlled resistor.

IDS

Characteristic Curve

VT

VGS

n-channel Enhancement Mode

(Regions of operation)

Saturation region

VDS VGS-VT, VGS > VT Constant-current source.

IDS
Ohmic Saturation

IDSS

VGS

VGS VTH VDS

Characteristic curves

n-channel Enhancement Mode

(Regions of operation)

Breakdown region

VDS > VB

Comparison

(n-channel and p-channel)

p-type charge carrier. Direction of drain current is opposite. VDS and VGS are negative. n-channel, p-channel behave the same way.

Depletion MOSFET

Addition of an n-type region between the oxide layer and p-type substrate. Thus, depletion MOSFETs are normally on. VT, threshold voltage, is negative. Unlike enhancement MOSFET, depletion MOSFET :

Allows positive and negative gate voltages. Can be in the saturation region for VGS= 0

JFET

JFET

n-channel p-channel

n-channel

p-channel

JFET

(Physical and circuit representations)

JFET

(Regions of Operations)

Cutoff region

VGS < -VP, -VP is the threshold voltage. VDS = 0

JEFT

(Regions of Operations)

Ohmic region

VDS < 0.25(VGS + VP), VGS > -VP. Resistance controlled by VGS

IDS

IDSS

VDS

Transfer characteristic in saturation region (| VDS |>|VP|)

VP

JFET

(Regions of Operations)

Saturation region

VDS VGS +VP, VGS > -VP. Constant- current source.

IDS IDSS

VGS = 0V

Ohmic region

Saturation region

VGS

VGS = VP
-VP VDS

Idealized output characteristic

JFET

(Regions of Operations)

Breakdown regions.

VDS > VB.

JFET

(Physical representation of the regions)

Illustration of depletion layer growth and pinch-off voltage

Transistors as Amplifiers and Switches

Use the I-V characteristic curves of BJT and MOSFET Use the regions of operation of these transistors

BJT Cutoff Region Active Linear Region Saturation Region MOSFET Cutoff Region Ohmic or Triode Region Saturation (Active Region)

Switch operation Amplifier operation

Switch operation Amplifier operation

I-V Characteristic Curves

Operating Point for BJT For each, IB there is a corresponding I-V curve. Selecting IB and VCE, we can find the operating point, or Q point. Applying KVL around the base-emitter and collector circuits, we obtain : IB = IBB VCE = Vcc ICRC Vcc IC = RC VCE RC

I-V Characteristic Curves

Vcc IC = RC VCE RC

Load-line curve

Transistors as Amplifiers
BJT common emitter mode In Linear Active Region Significant current Gain

Example let Gain, = 80 VB = 2V VE = 1.3V

Find IC and VC

Transistors as Amplifiers
VBE = VB VE = 0.7V IB = VBB VB 4-2 = 40,000 RB = 50 mA IC = x IB = 80 x 50 mA = 4mA

VC = Vcc IC x RC = 12 (4x10-3)(1x103) =8V

VCE = VC VE = 8 1.3

= 6.7 V

Transistors as Switches

Basis of digital logic circuits Used in microprocessors Input to transistor gate can be analog or digital Common names are

TTL Transistor Transitor Logic CMOS Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor

Transistors as Switches BJT Inverter

Use of the cutoff and saturation regions in the I-V curves. VCE = Vcc - (IC)(RC) Vout = VCE

Transistors as Switches BJT Inverter

Vin Low Cutoff region No current flows Vout = VCE = Vcc Vout = High

Vin High Saturation region VCE small Vout = small Vout = Low

Transistors as Switches- MOSFET

Advantages over BJT logic gates Normally Off. Does not require much current from input signal Easy Fabrication Economical for large scale production CMOS consumes very little power. Used in pocket calculators and wrist watches Disadvantages over BJT logic gates Cannot provide as much current as BJT Switching speed is not as fast

Transistors as Switches- MOSFET Inverter

Vin Low Cutoff region No Voltage drop across RD Vout = VDD Vout = High

Vin High Ohmic region VDS small Vout = small Vout = Low

Transistors as Switches- CMOS Inverter

Employs a p-channel, Qp, and an n-channel, Qn MOSFET Vin = Low Vin = High Qn = off Qn = on Qp = on Qp = off Vout = High Vout = Low

References
Rizzoni - Principles and Applications of Electrical Engineering, 2nd Edition www.HowStuffWorks.com www.williamson-labs.com